Alemanha

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Coordenadas : 51 ° N 9 ° E / 51°N 9°E / 51; 9

República Federal da Alemanha

Bundesrepublik Deutschland  ( alemão )
Hino:  " Deutschlandlied " [a]
(inglês: "Song of Germany" )
EU-Germany (orthographic projection).svg
EU-Germany.svg
Localização da Alemanha (verde escuro)

- na Europa  (verde claro e cinza escuro)
- na União Europeia  (verde claro)

Capital
e a maior cidade
Berlim [b] 52 ° 31′N 13 ° 23′E
 / 52.517°N 13.383°E / 52.517; 13.383
Língua oficial
e língua nacional
Alemão [c]
Demônimo (s)alemão
GovernoRepública parlamentar federal
•  Presidente
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
•  Chanceler
Angela Merkel
Olaf Scholz
Legislatura
Bundesrat
Bundestag
Formação
18 de janeiro de 1871
9 de novembro de 1918
23 de março de 1933
23 de maio de 1949
3 de outubro de 1990
Área
• Total
357.022 km 2 (137.847 sq mi) [4] ( 63º )
• Água (%)
1,27 (a partir de 2015) [5]
População
• estimativa para 2020
Neutral increase83.190.556 [6] ( 18º )
• Densidade
232 / km 2 (600,9 / sq mi) ( 58º )
PIB  ( PPP )Estimativa de 2021
• Total
Increase$ 4,743 trilhões [7] ( )
• per capita
Increase$ 56.956 [7] ( 15º )
PIB  (nominal)Estimativa de 2021
• Total
Increase$ 4.319 trilhões [7] ( )
• per capita
Increase$ 51.860 [7] ( 15º )
Gini  (2019)Positive decrease 29,7 [8]
baixo
HDI  (2019)Increase 0,947 [9]
muito alto  · 
MoedaEuro ( ) ( EUR )
Fuso horárioUTC +1 ( CET )
• Verão ( DST )
UTC +2 ( CEST )
Lado de conduçãodireito
Código ISO 3166DE
Internet TLD.de

Alemanha ( alemão : Deutschland , pronunciado [ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( ouvir )About this sound ), oficialmente a República Federal da Alemanha , [e] é um país da Europa Central . É o segundo país mais populoso da Europa, depois da Rússia, e o estado-membro mais populoso da União Europeia . A Alemanha está situada entre os mares Báltico e do Norte , ao norte, e os Alpes, ao sul; cobrindo uma área de 357.022 quilômetros quadrados (137.847 sq mi), com uma população de mais de 83 milhões em seus 16estados constituintes . Faz fronteira com a Dinamarca ao norte, Polônia e República Tcheca a leste, Áustria e Suíça ao sul, e França, Luxemburgo, Bélgica e Holanda a oeste. A capital e maior cidade do país é Berlim , e seu centro financeiro é Frankfurt ; a maior área urbana é o Ruhr .

Várias tribos germânicas habitaram as partes do norte da Alemanha moderna desde a antiguidade clássica . Uma região chamada Germânia foi documentada antes de 100 DC. No século 10, os territórios alemães formavam uma parte central do Sacro Império Romano . Durante o século 16, as regiões do norte da Alemanha se tornaram o centro da Reforma Protestante . Após as Guerras Napoleônicas e a dissolução do Sacro Império Romano em 1806, a Confederação Alemã foi formada em 1815. Em 1871, a Alemanha tornou-se um estado-nação quando a maioria dos estados alemães se unificou em países dominados pela PrússiaImpério Alemão . Após a Primeira Guerra Mundial e a Revolução Alemã de 1918-1919 , o Império foi substituído pela República de Weimar semi-presidencial . A tomada do poder pelos nazistas em 1933 levou ao estabelecimento de uma ditadura , à Segunda Guerra Mundial e ao Holocausto . Após o fim da Segunda Guerra Mundial na Europa e um período de ocupação Aliada , a Alemanha foi dividida em República Federal da Alemanha, geralmente conhecida como Alemanha Ocidental , e República Democrática Alemã, Alemanha Oriental . A República Federal da Alemanha foi membro fundador da Comunidade Econômica Europeia e da União Europeia, enquanto a República Democrática Alemã era um estado comunista do Bloco de Leste e membro do Pacto de Varsóvia . Após a queda do comunismo , a reunificação alemã viu os antigos estados da Alemanha Oriental aderirem à República Federal da Alemanha em 3 de outubro de 1990 - tornando-se uma república parlamentar federal liderada por um chanceler .

A Alemanha é uma grande potência com uma economia forte ; tem a maior economia da Europa , a quarta maior economia do mundo em PIB nominal e a quinta maior em PPC . Como líder global em vários setores industriais, científicos e tecnológicos , é o terceiro maior exportador e importador de mercadorias do mundo. Como um país desenvolvido , que ocupa uma posição muito alta no Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano , oferece seguridade social e um sistema de saúde universal , proteção ambiental e umeducação universitária gratuita . A Alemanha é membro das Nações Unidas , da OTAN , do G7 , do G20 e da OCDE . Possui o terceiro maior número de Patrimônios Mundiais da UNESCO .

Etimologia

A palavra inglesa Germany deriva do latim Germania , que passou a ser usada depois que Júlio César a adotou para os povos a leste do Reno . [11] O termo alemão Deutschland , originalmente diutisciu land ('as terras alemãs') é derivado de deutsch ( cf. holandês ), descendente do antigo alto alemão diutisc 'do povo' (de diot ou diota 'povo'), originalmente usado para distinguir a língua das pessoas comuns do latim e seusDescendentes romances . Este, por sua vez, descende do proto-germânico * þiudiskaz 'do povo' (ver também a forma latinizada Theodiscus ), derivado de * þeudō , descendente de proto-indo-europeu * tewtéh₂- 'povo', do qual também se origina a palavra teutões . [12]

História

Os humanos antigos estiveram presentes na Alemanha pelo menos 600.000 anos atrás. [13] O primeiro fóssil humano não moderno (o Neandertal ) foi descoberto no Vale do Neander . [14] Evidência similarmente datada de humanos modernos foi encontrada no Jura da Suábia , incluindo flautas de 42.000 anos que são os instrumentos musicais mais antigos já encontrados, [15] o Homem Leão de 40.000 anos , [16] e o Vênus de Hohle Fels com 35.000 anos . [17] O disco celeste Nebra , criado durante a Idade do Bronze na Europa , é atribuído a um site alemão. [18]

Tribos germânicas e império franco

As tribos germânicas são pensados para data a partir da Idade do Bronze Nórdica ou o pré-romana da Idade do Ferro . [19] Do sul da Escandinávia e norte da Alemanha, eles se expandiram para o sul, leste e oeste, entrando em contato com as tribos celtas , iranianas , bálticas e eslavas . [20]

Sob Augusto , o Império Romano começou a invadir terras habitadas pelas tribos germânicas, criando uma província romana de curta duração da Germânia entre os rios Reno e Elba . Em 9 DC, três legiões romanas foram derrotadas por Arminius . [21] Por volta de 100 DC, quando Tácito escreveu a Germânia , tribos germânicas se estabeleceram ao longo do Reno e do Danúbio ( Limes Germanicus ), ocupando a maior parte da Alemanha moderna. No entanto, Baden Württemberg , sul da Baviera , sul de Hesse e oesteRenânia havia sido incorporada às províncias romanas . [22] [23] [24] Por volta de 260, os povos germânicos invadiram as terras controladas pelos romanos. [25] Após a invasão dos hunos em 375, e com o declínio de Roma a partir de 395, as tribos germânicas se moveram mais para o sudoeste: os francos estabeleceram o reino franco e empurraram para o leste para subjugar a Saxônia e a Baviera , e áreas do que hoje é o leste da Alemanha foram habitados por tribos eslavas ocidentais . [22]

Francia Oriental e Sacro Império Romano

Carlos Magno fundou o Império Carolíngio em 800; foi dividido em 843 [26] e o Sacro Império Romano emergiu da porção oriental. O território inicialmente conhecido como Francia Oriental se estendia do Reno no oeste ao Rio Elba no leste e do Mar do Norte aos Alpes . [26] Os governantes otonianos (919–1024) consolidaram vários ducados importantes . [27] Em 996, Gregório V se tornou o primeiro papa alemão, nomeado por seu primo Otto III, a quem logo depois coroou o Sacro Imperador Romano. O Sacro Império Romano absorveu o norte da Itália e a Borgonha sob os imperadores salianos (1024–1125), embora os imperadores tenham perdido o poder com a controvérsia da Investidura . [28]

Sob os imperadores Hohenstaufen (1138–1254), os príncipes alemães encorajaram a colonização alemã no sul e no leste ( Ostsiedlung ). Membros da Liga Hanseática , principalmente cidades do norte da Alemanha, prosperaram na expansão do comércio. [29] A população diminuiu a partir da Grande Fome em 1315, seguida pela Peste Negra de 1348-50. [30] A Bula de Ouro emitida em 1356 forneceu a estrutura constitucional do Império e codificou a eleição do imperador por sete príncipes eleitores . [31]

Martinho Lutero (1483-1546), reformador protestante

Johannes Gutenberg introduziu a impressão de tipos móveis na Europa, lançando as bases para a democratização do conhecimento . [32] Em 1517, Martinho Lutero incitou a Reforma Protestante e sua tradução da Bíblia deu início à padronização da linguagem; a Paz de Augsburgo de 1555 tolerou a fé "evangélica" ( luteranismo ), mas também decretou que a fé do príncipe deveria ser a fé de seus súditos ( cuius regio, eius religio ). [33] Da Guerra de Colônia até as Guerras dos Trinta Anos(1618-1648), o conflito religioso devastou as terras alemãs e reduziu significativamente a população. [34] [35]

A Paz de Westfália pôs fim à guerra religiosa entre os Estados Imperiais ; [34] seus governantes de língua alemã foram capazes de escolher o catolicismo romano, o luteranismo ou a fé reformada como religião oficial. [36] O sistema legal iniciado por uma série de Reformas Imperiais (aproximadamente 1495-1555) proporcionou considerável autonomia local e uma Dieta Imperial mais forte . [37] A Casa de Habsburgo manteve a coroa imperial de 1438 até a morte de Carlos VI em 1740. Após a Guerra da Sucessão Austríaca e o Tratado de Aix-la-Chapelle, A filha de Carlos VI, Maria Teresa, governou como imperatriz consorte quando seu marido, Francisco I , tornou-se imperador. [38] [39]

A partir de 1740, o dualismo entre a Monarquia Austríaca dos Habsburgos e o Reino da Prússia dominou a história alemã. Em 1772, 1793 e 1795, a Prússia e a Áustria, junto com o Império Russo , concordaram com as Partições da Polônia . [40] [41] Durante o período das Guerras Revolucionárias Francesas , a era napoleônica e a reunião final subsequente da Dieta Imperial , a maioria das Cidades Imperiais Livres foram anexadas por territórios dinásticos; os territórios eclesiásticos foram secularizados e anexados. Em 1806 o Impériofoi dissolvido; França, Rússia, Prússia e os Habsburgos (Áustria) competiram pela hegemonia nos estados alemães durante as Guerras Napoleônicas . [42]

Confederação Alemã e Império

Após a queda de Napoleão , o Congresso de Viena fundou a Confederação Alemã, uma liga independente de 39 estados soberanos . A nomeação do imperador da Áustria como presidente permanente refletiu a rejeição do Congresso à influência crescente da Prússia . O desacordo dentro da política de restauração levou parcialmente ao surgimento de movimentos liberais , seguidos por novas medidas de repressão pelo estadista austríaco Klemens von Metternich . [43] [44] O Zollverein , uma união tarifária, promoveu a unidade econômica. [45] À luz demovimentos revolucionários na Europa , intelectuais e plebeus iniciaram as revoluções de 1848 nos estados alemães , levantando a Questão Alemã . O título de imperador foi oferecido ao rei Frederico Guilherme IV da Prússia , mas sem poder; ele rejeitou a coroa e a constituição proposta, um revés temporário para o movimento. [46]

Rei William I nomeou Otto von Bismarck como o Ministro Presidente da Prússia em 1862. Bismarck concluiu com sucesso a guerra com a Dinamarca em 1864 ; a subsequente vitória prussiana decisiva na Guerra Austro-Prussiana de 1866 permitiu-lhe criar a Confederação da Alemanha do Norte, que excluiu a Áustria . Após a derrota da França na Guerra Franco-Prussiana , os príncipes alemães proclamaram a fundação do Império Alemão em 1871. A Prússia era o estado constituinte dominante do novo império; o rei da Prússia governou como seu Kaiser, e Berlim tornou-se sua capital. [47] [48]

No período Gründerzeit após a unificação da Alemanha , a política externa de Bismarck como Chanceler da Alemanha garantiu a posição da Alemanha como uma grande nação, forjando alianças e evitando a guerra. [48] No entanto, sob Wilhelm II , a Alemanha seguiu um curso imperialista , levando a atritos com os países vizinhos. [49] Uma dupla aliança foi criada com o reino multinacional da Áustria-Hungria ; a Tríplice Aliança de 1882incluiu a Itália. Grã-Bretanha, França e Rússia também concluíram alianças para se proteger da interferência dos Habsburgos nos interesses russos nos Bálcãs ou da interferência alemã contra a França. [50] Na Conferência de Berlim em 1884, a Alemanha reivindicou várias colônias, incluindo a África Oriental Alemã , a África Sudoeste Alemã , Togolândia e Kamerun . [51] Mais tarde, a Alemanha expandiu ainda mais seu império colonial para incluir propriedades no Pacífico e na China. [52] O governo colonial no Sudoeste da África (atual Namíbia ), de 1904 a 1907, realizou oaniquilação dos povos herero e namaqua locais como punição por um levante; [53] [54] este foi o primeiro genocídio do século 20 . [54]

O assassinato do príncipe herdeiro da Áustria em 28 de junho de 1914 forneceu o pretexto para a Áustria-Hungria atacar a Sérvia e desencadear a Primeira Guerra Mundial . Após quatro anos de guerra, na qual aproximadamente dois milhões de soldados alemães foram mortos, [55] um armistício geral encerrou a luta. Na Revolução Alemã (novembro de 1918), o imperador Guilherme II e os príncipes governantes abdicaram de suas posições, e a Alemanha foi declarada uma república federal . A nova liderança da Alemanha assinou o Tratado de Versalhes em 1919, aceitando a derrota pelos Aliados. Os alemães consideraram o tratado humilhante, visto pelos historiadores como influente na ascensão de Adolf Hitler . [56] A Alemanha perdeu cerca de 13% de seu território europeu e cedeu todas as suas possessões coloniais na África e no Mar do Sul. [57]

República de Weimar e Alemanha nazista

Em 11 de agosto de 1919, o presidente Friedrich Ebert assinou a democrática Constituição de Weimar . [58] Na luta subsequente pelo poder, os comunistas tomaram o poder na Baviera , mas elementos conservadores em outros lugares tentaram derrubar a República no golpe de Kapp . Seguiram-se combates de rua nos principais centros industriais, a ocupação do Ruhr por tropas belgas e francesas e um período de hiperinflação . Um plano de reestruturação da dívida e a criação de uma nova moeda em 1924 marcou o início dos anos vinte dourados , uma era de inovação artística e vida cultural liberal.[59] [60] [61]

Adolf Hitler , ditador da Alemanha nazista (1933–1945)

A Grande Depressão mundial atingiu a Alemanha em 1929. O governo do chanceler Heinrich Brüning seguiu uma política de austeridade fiscal e deflação que causou desemprego de quase 30% em 1932. [62] O Partido Nazista liderado por Adolf Hitler ganhou uma eleição especial em 1932 e Hindenburg nomeou Hitler como chanceler da Alemanha em 30 de janeiro de 1933. [63] Após o incêndio do Reichstag , um decreto revogou os direitos civis básicos e o primeiro campo de concentração nazista foi aberto. [64] [65] OA Lei de Habilitação deu a Hitler poder legislativo irrestrito, anulando a constituição; [66] seu governo estabeleceu um estado totalitário centralizado , retirou-se da Liga das Nações e aumentou dramaticamente o rearmamento do país . [67] Um programa patrocinado pelo governo para renovação econômica focado em obras públicas, a mais famosa das quais era a autobahn . [68]

Em 1935, o regime retirou-se do Tratado de Versalhes e introduziu as Leis de Nuremberg que visavam aos judeus e outras minorias. [69] A Alemanha também readquiriu o controle do Saarland em 1935, [70] remilitarizou a Renânia em 1936, anexou a Áustria em 1938, anexou a Sudetenland em 1938 com o Acordo de Munique e em violação do acordo ocupou a Tchecoslováquia em março de 1939. [ 71] Kristallnacht (Noite dos vidros quebrados) viu o incêndio de sinagogas, a destruição de negócios judaicos e prisões em massa de judeus. [72]

Em agosto de 1939, o governo de Hitler negociou o pacto Molotov – Ribbentrop que dividiu a Europa Oriental em esferas de influência alemã e soviética . [73] Em 1 de setembro de 1939, a Alemanha invadiu a Polônia , começando a Segunda Guerra Mundial na Europa; [74] Grã-Bretanha e França declararam guerra à Alemanha em 3 de setembro. [75] Na primavera de 1940, a Alemanha conquistou a Dinamarca e a Noruega , a Holanda , a Bélgica , o Luxemburgo e a França , forçando o governo francês a assinar um armistício. Os britânicos repeliram ataques aéreos alemães noBatalha da Grã-Bretanha no mesmo ano. Em 1941, as tropas alemãs invadiram a Iugoslávia , a Grécia e a União Soviética . Em 1942, a Alemanha e seus aliados controlavam a maior parte da Europa continental e do Norte da África , mas após a vitória soviética na Batalha de Stalingrado , a reconquista dos aliados do Norte da África e a invasão da Itália em 1943, as forças alemãs sofreram repetidas derrotas militares. Em 1944, os soviéticos invadiram a Europa Oriental ; os aliados ocidentais desembarcaram na França e entraram na Alemanha, apesar de uma contra-ofensiva alemã final . SeguindoO suicídio de Hitler durante a Batalha de Berlim , a Alemanha se rendeu em 8 de maio de 1945, encerrando a Segunda Guerra Mundial na Europa. [74] [76] Após o fim da guerra, oficiais nazistas sobreviventes foram julgados por crimes de guerra nos julgamentos de Nuremberg . [77] [78]

No que mais tarde ficou conhecido como Holocausto , o governo alemão perseguiu as minorias, incluindo-as internando-as em campos de concentração e extermínio em toda a Europa. No total, 17 milhões de pessoas foram sistematicamente assassinadas , incluindo 6 milhões de judeus, pelo menos 130.000 ciganos , 275.000 pessoas com deficiência , milhares de Testemunhas de Jeová , milhares de homossexuais e centenas de milhares de oponentes políticos e religiosos . [79] As políticas nazistas nos países ocupados pela Alemanha resultaram na morte de cerca de 2,7 milhões de poloneses ,[80] 1,3 milhão de ucranianos , 1 milhão de bielorrussos e 3,5 milhões de prisioneiros de guerra soviéticos . [81] [77] As baixas militares alemãsforam estimadas em 5,3 milhões, [82] e cerca de 900.000 civis alemães morreram. [83] Cerca de 12 milhões de alemães étnicos foram expulsos de toda a Europa Oriental, e a Alemanha perdeu cerca de um quarto de seu território antes da guerra. [84]

Alemanha Oriental e Ocidental

Zonas de ocupação americana, soviética, britânica e francesa na Alemanha e no Protetorado do Sarre controlado pelos franceses , 1947. Os territórios a leste da linha Oder-Neisse foram transferidos para a Polônia e a União Soviética sob os termos da Conferência de Potsdam . [85]

Depois que a Alemanha nazista se rendeu, os Aliados dividiram Berlim e o restante do território alemão em quatro zonas de ocupação. Os setores ocidentais, controlados pela França, Reino Unido e Estados Unidos, foram fundidos em 23 de maio de 1949 para formar a República Federal da Alemanha (em alemão : Bundesrepublik Deutschland ); em 7 de outubro de 1949, a Zona Soviética tornou-se a República Democrática Alemã ( alemão : Deutsche Demokratische Republik ; DDR). Eles eram informalmente conhecidos como Alemanha Ocidental e Alemanha Oriental. [86] A Alemanha Oriental escolheu Berlim Oriental como sua capital, enquanto a Alemanha Ocidental escolheuBonn como capital provisória, para enfatizar sua posição de que a solução dos dois estados era temporária. [87]

A Alemanha Ocidental foi estabelecida como uma república parlamentar federal com uma " economia social de mercado ". A partir de 1948, a Alemanha Ocidental tornou-se um grande beneficiário da ajuda à reconstrução do Plano Marshall . [88] Konrad Adenauer foi eleito o primeiro chanceler federal da Alemanha em 1949. O país desfrutou de um crescimento econômico prolongado ( Wirtschaftswunder ) começando no início dos anos 1950. [89] A Alemanha Ocidental aderiu à OTAN em 1955 e foi um membro fundador da Comunidade Econômica Europeia . [90]

A Alemanha Oriental era um estado do Bloco Oriental sob controle político e militar da URSS por meio das forças de ocupação e do Pacto de Varsóvia . Embora a Alemanha Oriental afirmasse ser uma democracia, o poder político era exercido exclusivamente pelos principais membros ( Politbüro ) do Partido da Unidade Socialista da Alemanha , controlado pelos comunistas , apoiado pela Stasi , um imenso serviço secreto. [91] Enquanto a propaganda da Alemanha Oriental era baseada nos benefícios dos programas sociais da RDA e na alegada ameaça de uma invasão da Alemanha Ocidental, muitos de seus cidadãos olhavam para o Ocidente em busca de liberdade e prosperidade. [92] O Muro de Berlim, construído em 1961, evitou que os cidadãos da Alemanha Oriental fugissem para a Alemanha Ocidental, tornando-se um símbolo da Guerra Fria . [93]

As tensões entre Alemanha Oriental e Ocidental foram reduzidas no final de 1960 pelo chanceler Willy Brandt 's Ostpolitik . [94] Em 1989, a Hungria decidiu desmantelar a Cortina de Ferro e abrir sua fronteira com a Áustria , causando a emigração de milhares de alemães orientais para a Alemanha Ocidental via Hungria e Áustria. Isso teve efeitos devastadores na RDA, onde as manifestações de massa regulares receberam apoio crescente. Em um esforço para ajudar a manter a Alemanha Oriental como um estado, as autoridades da Alemanha Oriental aliviaram as restrições de fronteira, mas isso na verdade levou a uma aceleração do processo de reforma de Wende , culminando no Tratado Dois Mais Quatrosob o qual a Alemanha recuperou a soberania plena. Isso permitiu a reunificação alemã em 3 de outubro de 1990, com a adesão dos cinco estados restabelecidos da ex-RDA. [95] A queda do muro em 1989 tornou-se um símbolo da queda do comunismo , a dissolução da União Soviética , a reunificação alemã e o Die Wende . [96]

Alemanha reunificada e União Europeia

O Muro de Berlim durante sua queda em 1989, com o Portão de Brandemburgo ao fundo

A Alemanha Unida foi considerada a continuação ampliada da Alemanha Ocidental, portanto manteve sua participação em organizações internacionais. [97] Com base na Lei de Berlim / Bonn (1994), Berlim tornou-se novamente a capital da Alemanha, enquanto Bonn obteve o status único de Bundesstadt (cidade federal) mantendo alguns ministérios federais. [98] A realocação do governo foi concluída em 1999, e a modernização da economia da Alemanha Oriental estava programada para durar até 2019. [99] [100]

Desde a reunificação, a Alemanha assumiu um papel mais ativo na União Europeia , assinando o Tratado de Maastricht em 1992 e o Tratado de Lisboa em 2007, [101] e co-fundando a zona do euro . [102] A Alemanha enviou uma força de paz para garantir a estabilidade nos Bálcãs e enviou tropas alemãs para o Afeganistão como parte de um esforço da OTAN para fornecer segurança naquele país após a derrubada do Talibã . [103] [104]

Nas eleições de 2005 , Angela Merkel se tornou a primeira mulher chanceler. Em 2009, o governo alemão aprovou um plano de estímulo de € 50 bilhões. [105] Entre os principais projetos políticos alemães do início do século 21 estão o avanço da integração europeia , a transição energética ( Energiewende ) para um fornecimento de energia sustentável , o " freio da dívida " para orçamentos equilibrados, medidas para aumentar a taxa de fertilidade ( pró-natalismo ) e estratégias de alta tecnologia para a transição da economia alemã, resumidas como Indústria 4.0 . [106]A Alemanha foi afetada pela crise dos migrantes europeus em 2015: o país acolheu mais de um milhão de migrantes e desenvolveu um sistema de cotas que redistribuiu os migrantes em seus estados. [107]

Geografia

Mapa físico da alemanha

A Alemanha é o sétimo maior país da Europa; [4] fazendo fronteira com a Dinamarca ao norte, Polônia e República Tcheca ao leste, Áustria ao sudeste e Suíça ao sul-sudoeste. França , Luxemburgo e Bélgica estão situados a oeste, com a Holanda a noroeste. A Alemanha também faz fronteira com o Mar do Norte e, a norte-nordeste, com o Mar Báltico. O território alemão cobre 357.022 km 2 (137.847 sq mi), consistindo de 348.672 km 2 (134.623 sq mi) de terra e 8.350 km 2 (3.224 sq mi) de água.

A elevação varia das montanhas dos Alpes (ponto mais alto: o Zugspitze com 2.963 metros ou 9.721 pés) no sul até as costas do Mar do Norte ( Nordsee ) no noroeste e no Mar Báltico ( Ostsee ) no nordeste. As terras altas florestadas da Alemanha central e as terras baixas do norte da Alemanha (ponto mais baixo: no município de Neuendorf-Sachsenbande , Wilstermarsch a 3,54 metros ou 11,6 pés abaixo do nível do mar [108] ) são atravessadas por rios importantes como o Reno, Danúbio e Elba . Recursos naturais significativos incluem minério de ferro, carvão, potássio , madeira, linhito ,urânio , cobre, gás natural, sal e níquel. [4]

Clima

A maior parte da Alemanha tem clima temperado , variando de oceânico no norte a continental no leste e sudeste. Os invernos variam de frio nos Alpes do Sul a amenos e geralmente são nublados com precipitação limitada, enquanto os verões podem variar de quentes e secos a frios e chuvosos. As regiões do norte têm ventos de oeste predominantes que trazem o ar úmido do Mar do Norte, moderando a temperatura e aumentando a precipitação. Por outro lado, as regiões sudeste têm temperaturas mais extremas. [109]

De fevereiro de 2019 a 2020, as temperaturas médias mensais na Alemanha variaram de um mínimo de 3,3 ° C (37,9 ° F) em janeiro de 2020 a um máximo de 19,8 ° C (67,6 ° F) em junho de 2019. [110] A precipitação média mensal variou a partir de 30 litros por metro quadrado, em fevereiro e abril 2019 para 125 litros por metro quadrado, em fevereiro de 2020. [111] horas médias mensais de sol variou de 45, em Novembro de 2019-300 em junho de 2019. [112] a temperatura mais alta alguma vez registada na A Alemanha foi de 42,6 ° C em 25 de julho de 2019 em Lingen e a temperatura mais baixa foi de -37,8 ° C em 12 de fevereiro de 1929 em Wolnzach . [113] [114]

Biodiversidade

O território da Alemanha pode ser dividido em cinco terrestres ecorregiões : Atlântico florestas mistas , bálticos florestas mistas , florestas mistas da Europa Central , florestas de folhas largas da Europa Ocidental e Alpes coníferas e florestas mistas . [115] Em 2016, 51% da área terrestre da Alemanha é dedicada à agricultura, enquanto 30% é florestada e 14% é coberta por assentamentos ou infraestrutura. [116]

Plantas e animais incluem aqueles geralmente comuns na Europa Central. De acordo com o Inventário Florestal Nacional, faias , carvalhos e outras árvores decíduas constituem pouco mais de 40% das florestas; cerca de 60% são coníferas , principalmente abetos e pinheiros . [117] Existem muitas espécies de samambaias , flores , fungos e musgos . Os animais selvagens incluem veado , javali , muflão (uma subespécie de ovelha selvagem), raposa , texugo , lebre, e um pequeno número do castor eurasiano . [118] A centáurea azul já foi um símbolo nacional alemão . [119]

Os 16 parques nacionais na Alemanha incluem o Parque Nacional Jasmund, o Parque Nacional da Área da Lagoa Vorpommern , o Parque Nacional Müritz , os Parques Nacionais do Mar de Wadden , o Parque Nacional Harz , o Parque Nacional Hainich , o Parque Nacional da Floresta Negra , o Parque Nacional da Suíça Saxônica Park , o Parque Nacional da Floresta da Baviera e o Parque Nacional de Berchtesgaden . [120] Além disso, existem 17 Reservas da Biosfera , [121] e 105 parques naturais . [122]Mais de 400 zoológicos e parques de animais operam na Alemanha. [123] O zoológico de Berlim , inaugurado em 1844, é o mais antigo da Alemanha e possui a coleção mais abrangente de espécies do mundo. [124]

Política

Frank-Walter Steinmeier - 2018 (cropped).jpg Angela Merkel 2019 (cropped).jpg
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
Presidente
Angela Merkel
Chanceler

A Alemanha é uma república federal , parlamentar e democrática representativa . O poder legislativo federal está investido no parlamento, consistindo no Bundestag (Dieta Federal) e no Bundesrat (Conselho Federal), que juntos formam o corpo legislativo. O Bundestag é eleito por meio de eleições diretas usando o sistema de representação proporcional de membros mistos . Os membros do Bundesrat representam e são nomeados pelos governos dos dezesseis estados federados. [4]O sistema político alemão opera sob uma estrutura estabelecida na constituição de 1949, conhecida como Grundgesetz (Lei Básica). As emendas geralmente exigem uma maioria de dois terços do Bundestag e do Bundesrat ; os princípios fundamentais da constituição, expressos nos artigos que garantem a dignidade humana, a separação de poderes, a estrutura federal e o estado de direito , são válidos para sempre. [125]

O presidente , atualmente Frank-Walter Steinmeier , é o chefe de estado e investido principalmente de responsabilidades e poderes representativos. Ele é eleito pelo Bundesversammlung (convenção federal), uma instituição composta pelos membros do Bundestag e por igual número de delegados estaduais. [4] O segundo mais alto oficial na ordem de precedência alemã é o Bundestagspräsident ( presidente do Bundestag ), eleito pelo Bundestag e responsável por supervisionar as sessões diárias do órgão. [126] O terceiro maior oficial e oo chefe do governo é o chanceler, que é nomeado pelo Bundespräsident após ser eleito pelo partido ou coligação com mais cadeiras no Bundestag . [4] A chanceler, atualmente Angela Merkel , é a chefe do governo e exerce o poder executivo através de seu gabinete . [4]

Desde 1949, o sistema partidário foi dominado pela União Democrática Cristã e pelo Partido Social Democrata da Alemanha . Até agora, cada chanceler foi membro de um desses partidos. No entanto, o menor Partido Democrático Livre e a Aliança '90 / Os Verdes também foram parceiros menores em governos de coalizão . Desde 2007, o partido populista de esquerda The Left tem sido um grampo no Bundestag alemão , embora nunca tenha feito parte do governo federal. Nas eleições federais alemãs de 2017 , a alternativa populista de direita para a Alemanhaganhou votos suficientes para obter representação no parlamento pela primeira vez. [127] [128]

Estados constituintes

Germany is a federal state and comprises sixteen constituent states which are collectively referred to as Länder.[129] Each state has its own constitution,[130] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation.[129] As of 2017 Germany is divided into 401 districts (Kreise) at a municipal level; these consist of 294 rural districts and 107 urban districts.[131]

State Capital Area
(km2)[132]
Population (2018)[133] Nominal GDP billions EUR (2015)[134] Nominal GDP per capita EUR (2015)[134]
Baden-Württemberg Stuttgart 35,751 11,069,533 461 42,800
Bavaria Munich 70,550 13,076,721 550 43,100
Berlin Berlin 892 3,644,826 125 35,700
Brandenburg Potsdam 29,654 2,511,917 66 26,500
Bremen Bremen 420 682,986 32 47,600
Hamburg Hamburg 755 1,841,179 110 61,800
Hesse Wiesbaden 21,115 6,265,809 264 43,100
Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Schwerin 23,214 1,609,675 40 25,000
Lower Saxony Hanover 47,593 7,982,448 259 32,900
North Rhine-Westphalia Düsseldorf 34,113 17,932,651 646 36,500
Rhineland-Palatinate Mainz 19,854 4,084,844 132 32,800
Saarland Saarbrücken 2,569 990,509 35 35,400
Saxony Dresden 18,416 4,077,937 113 27,800
Saxony-Anhalt Magdeburg 20,452 2,208,321 57 25,200
Schleswig-Holstein Kiel 15,802 2,896,712 86 31,200
Thuringia Erfurt 16,202 2,143,145 57 26,400
Germany Berlin 357,386 83,019,213 3025 37,100

Law

Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law.[135] The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.[136] Germany's supreme court system is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court.[137]

Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system seeks the rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the public.[138] Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (Schöffen) sit side by side with professional judges.[139][140]

Germany has a low murder rate with 1.18 murders per 100,000 as of 2016.[141] In 2018, the overall crime rate fell to its lowest since 1992.[142]

Foreign relations

Germany hosted the G20 summit in Hamburg, 7–8 July 2017.[143]

Germany has a network of 227 diplomatic missions abroad[144] and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.[145] Germany is a member of NATO, the OECD, the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the IMF. It has played an influential role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France and all neighbouring countries since 1990. Germany promotes the creation of a more unified European political, economic and security apparatus.[146][147][148] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.[149] Cultural ties and economic interests have crafted a bond between the two countries resulting in Atlanticism.[150]

The development policy of Germany is an independent area of foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[151] It was the world's second-biggest aid donor in 2019 after the United States.[152]

Military

Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organised into the Heer (Army and special forces KSK), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Zentraler Sanitätsdienst der Bundeswehr (Joint Medical Service) and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. In absolute terms, German military expenditure is the 8th highest in the world.[153] In 2018, military spending was at $49.5 billion, about 1.2% of the country's GDP, well below the NATO target of 2%.[154][155]

As of January 2020, the Bundeswehr has a strength of 184,001 active soldiers and 80,947 civilians.[156] Reservists are available to the armed forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad.[157] Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, but this has been officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.[158][159] Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction.[160] According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Germany was the fourth-largest exporter of major arms in the world from 2014 to 2018.[161]

In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. In state of defence, the Chancellor would become commander-in-chief of the Bundeswehr.[162] The role of the Bundeswehr is described in the Constitution of Germany as defensive only. But after a ruling of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1994, the term "defence" has been defined to not only include protection of the borders of Germany, but also crisis reaction and conflict prevention, or more broadly as guarding the security of Germany anywhere in the world. As of 2017, the German military has about 3,600 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 1,200 supporting operations against Daesh, 980 in the NATO-led Resolute Support Mission in Afghanistan, and 800 in Kosovo.[163][164]

Economy

Frankfurt is a leading business centre in Europe and the seat of the European Central Bank.[165]

Germany has a social market economy with a highly skilled labour force, a low level of corruption, and a high level of innovation.[4][166][167] It is the world's third largest exporter and third largest importer of goods,[4] and has the largest economy in Europe, which is also the world's fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP,[168] and the fifth-largest by PPP.[169] Its GDP per capita measured in purchasing power standards amounts to 121% of the EU27 average (100%).[170] The service sector contributes approximately 69% of the total GDP, industry 31%, and agriculture 1% as of 2017.[4] The unemployment rate published by Eurostat amounts to 3.2% as of January 2020, which is the fourth-lowest in the EU.[171]

Germany is part of the European single market which represents more than 450 million consumers.[172] In 2017, the country accounted for 28% of the Eurozone economy according to the International Monetary Fund.[173] Germany introduced the common European currency, the Euro, in 2002.[174] Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank, which is headquartered in Frankfurt.[175][165]

Being home to the modern car, the automotive industry in Germany is regarded as one of the most competitive and innovative in the world,[176] and is the fourth largest by production.[177] The top 10 exports of Germany are vehicles, machinery, chemical goods, electronic products, electrical equipments, pharmaceuticals, transport equipments, basic metals, food products, and rubber and plastics.[178]

Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2019, the Fortune Global 500, 29 are headquartered in Germany.[179] 30 major Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index which is operated by Frankfurt Stock Exchange.[180] Well-known international brands include Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volkswagen, Audi, Siemens, Allianz, Adidas, Porsche, Bosch and Deutsche Telekom.[181] Berlin is a hub for startup companies and has become the leading location for venture capital funded firms in the European Union.[182] Germany is recognised for its large portion of specialised small and medium enterprises, known as the Mittelstand model.[183] These companies represent 48% global market leaders in their segments, labelled Hidden Champions.[184]

Research and development efforts form an integral part of the German economy.[185] In 2018 Germany ranked fourth globally in terms of number of science and engineering research papers published.[186] Germany was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020.[187][188] Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association, and the Fraunhofer Society and the Leibniz Association.[189] Germany is the largest contributor to the European Space Agency.[190]

Infrastructure

With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub for the continent.[191] Its road network is among the densest in Europe.[192] The motorway (Autobahn) is widely known for having no federally mandated speed limit for some classes of vehicles.[193] The InterCityExpress or ICE train network serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 km/h (190 mph).[194] The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport.[195] The Port of Hamburg is one of the top twenty largest container ports in the world.[196]

In 2015, Germany was the world's seventh-largest consumer of energy.[197] The government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.[198] It meets the country's power demands using 40% renewable sources.[199] Germany is committed to the Paris Agreement and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, and water management.[200][201][202] The country's household recycling rate is among the highest in the world—at around 65%.[203] The country's greenhouse gas emissions per capita were the ninth highest in the EU in 2018.[204] The German energy transition (Energiewende) is the recognised move to a sustainable economy by means of energy efficiency and renewable energy.[205]

Tourism

Germany is the ninth most visited country in the world as of 2017, with 37.4 million visits.[206] Berlin has become the third most visited city destination in Europe.[207] Domestic and international travel and tourism combined directly contribute over €105.3 billion to German GDP. Including indirect and induced impacts, the industry supports 4.2 million jobs.[208]

Germany's most visited and popular landmarks include Cologne Cathedral, the Brandenburg Gate, the Reichstag, the Dresden Frauenkirche, Neuschwanstein Castle, Heidelberg Castle, the Wartburg, and Sanssouci Palace.[209] The Europa-Park near Freiburg is Europe's second most popular theme park resort.[210]

Demographics

With a population of 80.2 million according to the 2011 census,[211] rising to 83.1 million as of 2019,[6] Germany is the most populous country in the European Union, the second-most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the nineteenth-most populous country in the world. Its population density stands at 227 inhabitants per square kilometre (588 per square mile). The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 80.19 years (77.93 years for males and 82.58 years for females).[4] The fertility rate of 1.41 children born per woman (2011 estimates) is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and is one of the lowest fertility rates in the world.[4] Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has exceeded its birth rate. However, Germany is witnessing increased birth rates and migration rates since the beginning of the 2010s, particularly a rise in the number of well-educated migrants. Germany has the third oldest population in the world, with an average age of 47.4 years.[4]

Four sizeable groups of people are referred to as "national minorities" because their ancestors have lived in their respective regions for centuries:[212] There is a Danish minority in the northernmost state of Schleswig-Holstein;[212] the Sorbs, a Slavic population, are in the Lusatia region of Saxony and Brandenburg; the Roma and Sinti live throughout the country; and the Frisians are concentrated in Schleswig-Holstein's western coast and in the north-western part of Lower Saxony.[212]

After the United States, Germany is the second most popular immigration destination in the world. The majority of migrants live in western Germany, in particular in urban areas. Of the country's residents, 18.6 million people (22.5%) were of immigrant or partially immigrant descent in 2016 (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates).[213] In 2015, the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs listed Germany as host to the second-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 12 million of all 244 million migrants.[214] As of 2018, Germany ranks fifth amongst EU countries in terms of the percentage of migrants in the country's population, at 12.9%.[215]

Germany has a number of large cities. There are 11 officially recognised metropolitan regions. The country's largest city is Berlin, while its largest urban area is the Ruhr.[216]

Religion

The 2011 German Census showed Christianity as the largest religion in Germany, with 66.8% identified themselves as Christian, with 3.8% of those not being church members.[217] 31.7% declared themselves as Protestants, including members of the Evangelical Church in Germany (which encompasses Lutheran, Reformed and administrative or confessional unions of both traditions) and the free churches (German: Evangelische Freikirchen); 31.2% declared themselves as Roman Catholics, and Orthodox believers constituted 1.3%. According to data from 2016, the Catholic Church and the Evangelical Church claimed 28.5% and 27.5%, respectively, of the population.[218][219] Islam is the second largest religion in the country.[220] In the 2011 census, 1.9% of the census population (1.52 million people) gave their religion as Islam, but this figure is deemed unreliable because a disproportionate number of adherents of this religion (and other religions, such as Judaism) are likely to have made use of their right not to answer the question.[221] Most of the Muslims are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites, Ahmadiyyas and other denominations. Other religions comprise less than one percent of Germany's population.[220]

A study in 2018 estimated that 38% of the population are not members of any religious organization or denomination,[222] though up to a third may still consider themselves religious. Irreligion in Germany is strongest in the former East Germany, which used to be predominantly Protestant before the enforcement of state atheism, and in major metropolitan areas.[223][224]

Languages

German is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany.[225] It is one of 24 official and working languages of the European Union, and one of the three procedural languages of the European Commission.[226] German is the most widely spoken first language in the European Union, with around 100 million native speakers.[227]

Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Low Rhenish, Sorbian, Romany, North Frisian and Saterland Frisian; they are officially protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, Polish, the Balkan languages and Russian. Germans are typically multilingual: 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two.[225]

Education

Heidelberg University is Germany's oldest institution of higher learning and generally counted among its most prestigious.

Responsibility for educational supervision in Germany is primarily organised within the individual states. Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four to six years.[228] Secondary schooling is divided into tracks based on whether students pursue academic or vocational education.[229] A system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung leads to a skilled qualification which is almost comparable to an academic degree. It allows students in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run trade school.[228] This model is well regarded and reproduced all around the world.[230]

Most of the German universities are public institutions, and students traditionally study without fee payment.[231] The general requirement for university is the Abitur. According to an OECD report in 2014, Germany is the world's third leading destination for international study.[232] The established universities in Germany include some of the oldest in the world, with Heidelberg University (established in 1386) being the oldest.[233] The Humboldt University of Berlin, founded in 1810 by the liberal educational reformer Wilhelm von Humboldt, became the academic model for many Western universities.[234][235] In the contemporary era Germany has developed eleven Universities of Excellence.

Health

The Hospital of the Holy Spirit in Lübeck, established in 1286, is a precursor to modern hospitals.[236]

Germany's system of hospitals, called Krankenhäuser, dates from medieval times, and today, Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating from Bismarck's social legislation of the 1880s.[237] Since the 1880s, reforms and provisions have ensured a balanced health care system. The population is covered by a health insurance plan provided by statute, with criteria allowing some groups to opt for a private health insurance contract. According to the World Health Organization, Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded as of 2013.[238] In 2014, Germany spent 11.3% of its GDP on health care.[239]

Germany ranked 20th in the world in 2013 in life expectancy with 77 years for men and 82 years for women, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births). In 2019, the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 37%.[240] Obesity in Germany has been increasingly cited as a major health issue. A 2014 study showed that 52 percent of the adult German population was overweight or obese.[241]

Culture

A typical German Weihnachtsmarkt (Christmas market) in Dresden

Culture in German states has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular. Historically, Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und Denker ('the land of poets and thinkers'),[242] because of the major role its writers and philosophers have played in the development of Western thought.[243] A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2013 and 2014.[244][245]

Germany is well known for such folk festival traditions as Oktoberfest and Christmas customs, which include Advent wreaths, Christmas pageants, Christmas trees, Stollen cakes, and other practices.[246][247] As of 2016 UNESCO inscribed 41 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List.[248] There are a number of public holidays in Germany determined by each state; 3 October has been a national day of Germany since 1990, celebrated as the Tag der Deutschen Einheit (German Unity Day).[249]

Music

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827), composer

German classical music includes works by some of the world's most well-known composers. Dieterich Buxtehude, Johann Sebastian Bach and Georg Friedrich Händel were influential composers of the Baroque period. Ludwig van Beethoven was a crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Carl Maria von Weber, Felix Mendelssohn, Robert Schumann and Johannes Brahms were significant Romantic composers. Richard Wagner was known for his operas. Richard Strauss was a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Wolfgang Rihm are important composers of the 20th and early 21st centuries.[250]

As of 2013, Germany was the second largest music market in Europe, and fourth largest in the world.[251] German popular music of the 20th and 21st centuries includes the movements of Neue Deutsche Welle, pop, Ostrock, heavy metal/rock, punk, pop rock, indie, Volksmusik (folk music), schlager pop and German hip hop. German electronic music gained global influence, with Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream pioneering in this genre.[252] DJs and artists of the techno and house music scenes of Germany have become well known (e.g. Paul van Dyk, Felix Jaehn, Paul Kalkbrenner, Robin Schulz and Scooter).[253]

Art and design

Franz Marc, Roe Deer in the Forest (1914)

German painters have influenced western art. Albrecht Dürer, Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald and Lucas Cranach the Elder were important German artists of the Renaissance, Johann Baptist Zimmermann of the Baroque, Caspar David Friedrich and Carl Spitzweg of Romanticism, Max Liebermann of Impressionism and Max Ernst of Surrealism. Several German art groups formed in the 20th century; Die Brücke (The Bridge) and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) influenced the development of expressionism in Munich and Berlin. The New Objectivity arose in response to expressionism during the Weimar Republic. After World War II, broad trends in German art include neo-expressionism and the New Leipzig School.[254]

Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque. Brick Gothic is a distinctive medieval style that evolved in Germany. Also in Renaissance and Baroque art, regional and typically German elements evolved (e.g. Weser Renaissance).[254] Vernacular architecture in Germany is often identified by its timber framing (Fachwerk) traditions and varies across regions, and among carpentry styles.[255] When industrialisation spread across Europe, Classicism and a distinctive style of historism developed in Germany, sometimes referred to as Gründerzeit style. Expressionist architecture developed in the 1910s in Germany and influenced Art Deco and other modern styles. Germany was particularly important in the early modernist movement: it is the home of Werkbund initiated by Hermann Muthesius (New Objectivity), and of the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius.[254] Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century; he conceived of the glass façade skyscraper.[256] Renowned contemporary architects and offices include Pritzker Prize winners Gottfried Böhm and Frei Otto.[257]

German designers became early leaders of modern product design.[258] The Berlin Fashion Week and the fashion trade fair Bread & Butter are held twice a year.[259]

Literature and philosophy

The Brothers Grimm collected and published popular German folk tales.

German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level.[260] The Grimms also gathered and codified regional variants of the German language, grounding their work in historical principles; their Deutsches Wörterbuch, or German Dictionary, sometimes called the Grimm dictionary, was begun in 1838 and the first volumes published in 1854.[261]

Influential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass.[262] The German book market is the third largest in the world, after the United States and China.[263] The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years.[264] The Leipzig Book Fair also retains a major position in Europe.[265]

German philosophy is historically significant: Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the enlightenment philosophy by Immanuel Kant; the establishment of classical German idealism by Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; Oswald Spengler's historical philosophy; the development of the Frankfurt School has been particularly influential.[266]

Media

The largest internationally operating media companies in Germany are the Bertelsmann enterprise, Axel Springer SE and ProSiebenSat.1 Media. Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 38 million TV households.[267] Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels.[268] There are more than 300 public and private radio stations in Germany; Germany's national radio network is the Deutschlandradio and the public Deutsche Welle is the main German radio and television broadcaster in foreign languages.[268] Germany's print market of newspapers and magazines is the largest in Europe.[268] The papers with the highest circulation are Bild, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and Die Welt.[268] The largest magazines include ADAC Motorwelt and Der Spiegel.[268] Germany has a large video gaming market, with over 34 million players nationwide.[269]

Babelsberg Studio near Berlin, the world's first large-scale film studio

German cinema has made major technical and artistic contributions to film. The first works of the Skladanowsky Brothers were shown to an audience in 1895. The renowned Babelsberg Studio in Potsdam was established in 1912, thus being the first large-scale film studio in the world. Early German cinema was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first major science-fiction film. After 1945, many of the films of the immediate post-war period can be characterised as Trümmerfilm (rubble film). East German film was dominated by state-owned film studio DEFA, while the dominant genre in West Germany was the Heimatfilm ("homeland film").[270] During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder brought West German auteur cinema to critical acclaim.

The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film ("Oscar") went to the German production The Tin Drum (Die Blechtrommel) in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa (Nirgendwo in Afrika) in 2002, and to The Lives of Others (Das Leben der Anderen) in 2007. Various Germans won an Oscar for their performances in other films. The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy. The Berlin International Film Festival, known as "Berlinale", awarding the "Golden Bear" and held annually since 1951, is one of the world's leading film festivals. The "Lolas" are annually awarded in Berlin, at the German Film Awards.[271]

Cuisine

Bavarian Bratwurst with mustard, a pretzel and beer

German cuisine varies from region to region and often neighbouring regions share some culinary similarities (e.g. the southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia share some traditions with Switzerland and Austria). International varieties such as pizza, sushi, Chinese food, Greek food, Indian cuisine and doner kebab are also popular.

Bread is a significant part of German cuisine and German bakeries produce about 600 main types of bread and 1,200 types of pastries and rolls (Brötchen).[272] German cheeses account for about 22% of all cheese produced in Europe.[273] In 2012 over 99% of all meat produced in Germany was either pork, chicken or beef. Germans produce their ubiquitous sausages in almost 1,500 varieties, including Bratwursts and Weisswursts.[274] The national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per person stands at 110 litres (24 imp gal; 29 US gal) in 2013 and remains among the highest in the world.[275] German beer purity regulations date back to the 16th century.[276] Wine is becoming more popular in many parts of the country, especially close to German wine regions.[277] In 2019, Germany was the ninth largest wine producer in the world.[278]

The 2018 Michelin Guide awarded eleven restaurants in Germany three stars, giving the country a cumulative total of 300 stars.[279]

Sports

The German national football team after winning the FIFA World Cup for the fourth time in 2014. Football is the most popular sport in Germany.

Football is the most popular sport in Germany. With more than 7 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest single-sport organisation worldwide,[280] and the German top league, the Bundesliga, attracts the second highest average attendance of all professional sports leagues in the world.[281] The German men's national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974, 1990, and 2014,[282] the UEFA European Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996,[283] and the FIFA Confederations Cup in 2017.[284]

Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans race 19 times, and Audi 13 times (as of 2017).[285] The driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won seven Formula One World Drivers' Championships.[286] Sebastian Vettel is also among the top five most successful Formula One drivers of all time.[287]

Historically, German athletes have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count (when combining East and West German medals). Germany was the last country to host both the summer and winter games in the same year, in 1936: the Berlin Summer Games and the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen.[288] Munich hosted the Summer Games of 1972.[289]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ From 1952 to 1990, the entire "Deutschlandlied" was the national anthem, but only the third verse was sung on official occasions. Since 1991, the third verse alone has been the national anthem.[1]
  2. ^ Berlin is the sole constitutional capital and de jure seat of government, but the former provisional capital of the Federal Republic of Germany, Bonn, has the special title of "federal city" (Bundesstadt) and is the primary seat of six ministries.[2]
  3. ^ Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian are recognised by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[3]
  4. ^ The Federal Republic of Germany was proclaimed on the British, American and French occupation zones on 23 May 1949 while the German Democratic Republic was formed from the Soviet occupation zone on 7 October 1949.
  5. ^ German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] (About this soundlisten))[10]

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External links

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