우르두어
우르두어 | |
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표준 우르두어 | |
اُردُو | |
![]() 우르두어 에서 Nasta'līq의 스크립트 | |
발음 | [ˈʊrduː] ( 듣다 )![]() |
네이티브 | 인도 와 파키스탄 |
지역 | 국토 : 우르두-힌디어 벨트 , 데칸 기타 : 신드 ( 카라치 , 하이데라바드 , 수쿠르 , 미르푸르 카 ) |
민족성 | 우르두어를 사용하는 사람들 ( 우르두-힌디어 벨트 의 무슬림 , 데카니족 및 무하지르족 ) [1] |
네이티브 스피커 | 69,000,000 (2021) [2] [ 추가 인용 필요 ]
L2 연사 : 161,000,000 (2021) [3] [ 추가 인용 필요 ] |
초기 형태 | |
방언 | |
공식 상태 | |
공식 언어 | ![]() (국가)
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에서 인정되는 소수 민족 언어 | |
규제 | 국가 언어 진흥부 (파키스탄) 우르두어 국가 진흥 위원회 (인도) |
언어 코드 | |
ISO 639-1 | ur |
ISO 639-2 | urd |
ISO 639-3 | urd |
글로톨로그 | urdu1245 |
링구아스피어 | 59-AAF-q |
![]() 우르두어가 공식 또는 공동 공식인 인도 및 파키스탄 지역
우르두어가 공식 또는 공동 공식이 아닌 지역 | |
우르두어 ( / ʊər D U / ] [10] 우르두어 : اردو , ALA-LC : 우르두어 )는 인 인도 아리아 언어 에서 주로 음성 남아시아 . [11] [12] 파키스탄 의 공식 국어 이자 공용어 이다 . [13] 인도에서 우르두어는 인도 헌법에 의해 그 지위, 기능 및 문화 유산이 인정된 8번째 일정 언어 입니다 . [14] [15]그것은 여러 인도 주에서 공식적인 지위를 가지고 있습니다. [주 1] [13] 에서 네팔 , 우르두어 등록 지역 방언. [16]
우르두어는 설명하고있다 Persianised 표준 레지스터 의 힌두 스탄 어 . [17] [18] 우르두어와 힌디어 는 공통의 인도-아리아 어 어휘 기반, 음운 및 구문을 공유하므로 구어체에서 서로 알아들을 수 있습니다. [19] [20] 형식적인 우르두어는 페르시아어에서 문학 및 기술 어휘를 가져오는 반면, [21] 형식적인 힌디어는 산스크리트어 에서 가져옵니다 . [21]
우르두어는 1837년 회사가 인도-이슬람 제국의 궁정 언어인 페르시아어를 대체하기 위해 선택했을 때 북부 인도 전역에서 동인도 회사 의 언어로 선택되었습니다 . [22] 우르두어와 힌디어의 구분을 주장하는 식민지 시대에 종교적, 사회적, 정치적 요인이 발생하여 힌디어-우르두어 논쟁으로 이어 졌습니다. [23]
우르두어는 18세기에 문학 언어가 되었고 두 개의 유사한 표준 형식이 델리 와 러크나우 에서 나타났습니다 . 1947년 이래로 Karachi 에서 세 번째 표준이 생겼습니다 . [24] [25] 남쪽에서 사용된 오래된 형태인 Deccani 는 16세기에 Deccan Sultanates의 궁정 언어가 되었습니다. [26] [25]
에 따르면 국가 백과 사전 의 2010 견적, 우르두어는 것입니다 세계에서 21 가장 말 모국어 약 66,000,000 그 나라의 언어로 말하는 사람과는. [27] 에 따르면 에스 놀 로그 의 2018 견적, 우르두어 11입니다 가장 널리 세계 언어를 말하는 , [28] 170000000 개로 전체 제 2 외국어로 말하는 사람들을 포함하여 스피커. [29]
역사
우르두어는 힌디어 와 마찬가지로 힌두스타니어의 한 형태입니다 . [30] [31] [32] 일부 언어학자들은 우르두어의 초기 형태가 중세(6세기에서 13세기) Apabhraṃśa 등록 이전 Shauraseni 언어 , 다른 언어 의 조상이기도 한 중세 인도-아리안 언어 에서 진화했다고 제안했습니다. 현대 인도-아리안 언어. [33] [34]
기원
인도의 델리 지역에서 모국어는 Khariboli였으며 , 그 초기 형태는 Old Hindi (또는 Hindavi) 로 알려져 있습니다. [35] [36] [37] [38] 중부 인도-아리아어족 의 서부 힌디어 군에 속한다 . [39] [40] 이슬람 정복 기간 과 인도 아대륙 (12세기에서 16세기) 동안 힌두교와 이슬람 문화 의 접촉은 복합 Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb 의 산물로서 힌두스타니의 발전을 이끌었습니다 . [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48]델리와 같은 도시에서 인도어 고대 힌디어는 많은 페르시아 차용어를 획득하기 시작했으며 계속해서 "힌디어"로, 나중에는 "힌두스타니어"로도 불리게 되었습니다. [37] [49] [50] [51] [39] 에서 남인도 (특히에서 골 콘다 과 의 Bijapur ) 언어의 형태 중세 인도 번성라고도 Dakhini 에서 loanwords 포함 텔루구어 과 마라 티어 . [52] [53] [54] Hindavi의 초기 문학 전통은 13세기 후반 Amir Khusrau 에 의해 설립되었습니다 . [55] [56] [57][58] 지금 우르두어로 알려진 언어를 호출하고, 18 세기 말까지 13 세기에서 힌디어 , [51] Hindavi , 힌두 , [49] Dehlavi , [51] Lahori, [59] 및 Lashkari . [60] 의 지배 말 아우 초기 18 세기 델리 주위 공통 언어로 지칭 될 시작 Zaban-E-우르두어 , [61] 로부터 도출 된 이름 투르크의 워드 오르 (군) 또는 Orda 행 그리고 "진영의 언어" 또는 "Zaban-i-Ordu " 또는 원래 " Lashkari Zaban ". [62] 투르코-아프간 델리 술탄국 은 페르시아어 를 인도에서 공식 언어로 확립 했으며, 무굴 제국 은 16세기부터 남아시아 북부 대부분에 걸쳐 확장된 정책을 계속했습니다. 18 세기와 힌두에 접합 페르시아 영향. [63] [50] 이름 우르두어 먼저 시인 도입 게레 Hamadani Mushafi 1780 해결 [64] [51] 문학 언어, 우르두어 공손한의 형상했다 같이, 엘리트 설정 . [65] [66]우르두어는 현지 인도 방언 Khariboli의 문법과 핵심 인도-아리아어 어휘를 유지하면서 페르시아 서예 스타일로 개발된 Nastaleeq 쓰기 시스템 [39] [67]을 채택했습니다 . [68]
다른 역사적 이름
힌디어, Hindavi, Rekhta, 우르두어 전자 Muallah : 언어의 역사를 통해, 우르두어는 여러 가지 다른 이름으로 언급 된 Dakhini , Lahori, Gujjari, 황무지, Lahori 및 Dehlavi . Ashraf Jahangir Semnani 와 같은 Sufi 작가의 여러 작품은 Urdu 언어에 대해 같은 이름을 사용했습니다. Shah Abdul Qadir Raipuri 는 꾸란을 우르두어로 번역한 최초의 사람이며 언어로 힌디어를 사용했습니다. [69] 우르두어는 호드를 의미하는 튀르크어이다. Shahjahan의 시대에 수도가 델리로 옮겨졌을 때 그는 그것을 Shahjahanabad 라고 불렀고 도시의 Bazar는 Urdu e Muallah로 명명했습니다. [70] [71] Rekhta라는 단어가 처음으로 언어로 사용 된 것은 Akbar 시대였습니다. 원래는 혼합물을 만들기 위한 페르시아어 단어였습니다. 인도어와 페르시아어 단어로 구성된 시를 레크타(Rekhta)라고 불렀습니다. Khusru는 Poetry에 같은 단어를 사용한 최초의 사람입니다. [ 인용 필요 ]
식민지 시대
인도의 영국 행정관이 종종 힌두스타니어로 언급한 우르두어는 [72] 페르시아어에 대한 이전 강조에 반대하는 영국 정책에 의해 식민지 인도 에서 촉진되었습니다 . [73] 식민 인도에서 "일반 이슬람교도와 힌두교도 는 19세기에 연합 주 에서 같은 언어 , 즉 힌두스타니어를 사용했는데, 그 이름이 힌디어, 우르두어 또는 브라즈와 같은 지역 방언 중 하나로 불렸는지 여부에 관계없이 또는 아와디 ." [74]무슬림과 힌두교 종교 공동체의 엘리트들은 법원과 정부 기관에서 페르시아-아랍 문자로 언어를 썼지만, 힌두교는 특정 문학 및 종교 상황에서 데바나가리 문자를 계속 사용하는 반면 무슬림은 페르시아-아랍 문자를 사용했습니다. [74] [67] [75] 1837년에 우르두어는 페르시아어 를 대신 하여 인도의 공식 언어가 되었고 영어와 함께 공용어로 되었다. [76] 식민 인도 이슬람 학교에서 이슬람교도들은 페르시아어와 아랍어를 인도-이슬람 문명 의 언어로 가르쳤습니다.; 영국인들은 인도 무슬림들의 문해력을 증진하고 공립학교에 가도록 유도하기 위해 이들 정부 교육 기관에서 페르시아-아랍 문자로 쓰여진 우르두어를 가르치기 시작했고 이 이후로 인도 무슬림들은 우르두어를 인도 무슬림들에게 우르두어로 보기 시작했다. 그들의 종교적 정체성의 상징. [74] 세 이하 힌두교는 인도 북서부에 아리아 Samaj는 페르 - 아랍 문자의 단독 사용에 대해 교반과 언어가 기본으로 작성해야한다고 주장 데바 나가리 스크립트 [77] 힌디어의 사용에 대한 반발을 촉발하는 서면 Lahore의 Anjuman-e-Islamia에 의해 Devanagari에서. [77]데바나가리 문자의 힌디어와 페르시아-아랍 문자의 우르두어는 이슬람교도를 위한 "우르두어"와 힌두교도를 위한 "힌디어"의 종파적 구분을 확립했으며, 이는 식민 인도 가 인도 자치령과 자치령으로 분할되면서 공식화되었습니다. 파키스탄 이후의 독립 (하지만 포함한 우르두어로 쓰기를 계속 힌두교 시인,가 고피 챈드 나랑 와 굴자는 ). [78] [79]
파티션 후
그것은 이미로 우르두어는 1947 년 파키스탄의 공식 언어로 선정 된 공용어 무슬림 북쪽과 북서쪽 영국, 인도, [80] 우르두어로부터 식민지 인도 작가의 문학 매체로 사용 되었더라도 봄베이 회장단 , 벵골 , Orissa Province , Tamil Nadu [ 설명 필요 ] 도 마찬가지입니다. [81] 1973년에 우르두어는 파키스탄의 유일한 국어로 인정되었지만 영어와 지역 언어도 공식적으로 인정되었습니다. [82] 1979년 소련의 아프가니스탄 침공 이후수십 년 동안 파키스탄에 살았던 수백만 명의 아프가니스탄 난민이 도착했고 , 아프가니스탄으로 다시 이주한 사람들을 포함하여 [83] 많은 아프가니스탄인들 도 인도 미디어에 노출된 덕분에 힌디어-우르두어에 능통하게 되었습니다. 주로 힌디어-우르두어 발리우드 영화와 노래. [84] [85] [86]
이 고유의 우르두어를 제거하려는 시도되었습니다 Prakrit 와 산스크리트어 단어와 페르시아 loanwords의 힌디어 - 새로운 어휘 우르두어과 힌디어 산스크리트어에서 페르시아어와 아랍어에서 주로 그립니다. [87] [88] 영어는 공용어로서 두 가지 모두에 큰 영향을 미쳤다. [89] 우르두어의 과도 페르시아어화를 향한 운동은 1947년 파키스탄의 독립 이후 파키스탄에서 나타났는데, 이는 인도에서 출현한 과도하게 산스크리트화된 힌디어처럼 "인공적"이다. [90] 우르두어의 페르시아어화는 부분적으로 힌디어의 산스크리트화 증가에 의해 촉발되었다. [91] [ 페이지 필요 ]그러나 파키스탄에서 일상적으로 사용되는 우르두어 스타일은 북부 인도 아대륙 의 링구아 프랑카 역할을 하는 중립적인 힌두스타니어와 유사합니다 . [92] [93]
적어도 1977년 이래로, [94] 저널리스트 Khushwant Singh 와 같은 일부 주석가들은 우르두어를 "죽어가는 언어"로 규정했지만, 우르두어 시인 Gulzar 와 같은 다른 사람들 은 이 평가에 동의하지 않고 우르두어가 "가장 살아있는 언어이며 시대를 앞서가는 것" 인도. [95] [96] [97] [94] [98] [99] [100] 이 현상은 다른 언어를 사용하는 우르두어 사용자에 비해 우르두어 원어민의 상대 및 절대 수가 감소하는 것과 관련이 있습니다. [101] [102] Urdu의 Perso-Arabic 스크립트, Urdu 어휘 및 문법에 대한 (고급) 지식 감소; [101] [103]우르두어로 문헌을 번역하고 음역하는 역할; [101] 변속 문화 우르두어의 이미지와 우르두어 스피커와 관련된 사회 경제적 상태 (이 두 나라에 부정적인 영향, 특히 고용 기회), [103] [101] 합법적 법적 지위와 사실상의 우르두어의 정치적 상태, [103] 얼마나 많은 우르두어가 고등 교육에서 학생들이 교육 언어로 사용하고 선택하는지, [103] [101] [102] [100] 우르두어의 유지 및 개발이 정부와 NGO에서 재정적으로나 제도적으로 어떻게 지원되는지. [103] [101]
인도에서는 우르두어가 이슬람교도에 의해 독점적으로 사용되지도 않았고 결코 사용되지도 않았지만(힌디어는 결코 힌두교도에 의해 독점적으로 사용된 적이 없다), [100] [104] 현재 진행 중인 힌디어-우르두어 논쟁 과 각 언어와 두 종교 간의 현대 문화 연관성으로 인해 우르두어를 사용하는 힌두교도들. [100] [104] 20세기에 인도 이슬람교도들은 처음에 우르두어를 점차 집단적으로 포용했다 [104] (예를 들어, '독립 이후 비하르의 이슬람 정치 에서는 우르두어 주변의 동원을 소수자에게 권한을 부여하는 도구로 보았다. 사회경제적 배경이 약한 사람' [101]), 그러나 21세기 초 인도의 많은 지역에서 우르두어가 교육 언어로 버려지고 [102] [101] 고용이 제한 되는 등 사회경제적 요인으로 인해 인도 무슬림의 증가하는 비율이 힌디어로 전환하기 시작했습니다. [102] [101] 힌디어, 영어 및 지역 언어에 비해 기회. [100] 인도의 우르두어 사용자의 수는 2001년과 2011년 사이에 1.5% 감소했으며(당시 508만 명의 우르두어 사용자) 특히 우르두어를 가장 많이 사용하는 Uttar Pradesh (8%에서 5%)와 Bihar(c. 11.5%에서 8.5%), 이 두 주에서 같은 기간에 무슬림의 수가 증가했음에도 불구하고. [102] 비록 우르두어는 21세기 초 인도 대중문화에서 여전히 매우 두드러 지지만 , 발리우드에서[99] 소셜 미디어에서는 우르두어 문자에 대한 지식과 우르두어로 된 책 출판이 꾸준히 감소하고 있는 반면 인도 정부의 정책은 전문적이고 공식적인 공간에서 우르두어의 보존을 적극적으로 지원하지 않습니다. [101] 부분적으로는 파키스탄 정부가 분할에서 우르두어를 국어로 선언했기 때문에 인도 국가와 일부 종교 민족주의자들은 우르두어를 '외국어'로 간주하여 의심을 품기 시작했습니다. [98] 인도의 우르두어 옹호자들은 우르두어를 데바나가리 와 라틴어 문자 ( 로만 우르두어 )로쓰는것을 허용해야 생존을 허용해야 하는지에 대해 동의하지 않습니다. [100] [105]또는 이것이 단지 그것의 종말을 재촉할 뿐이며 언어는 Perso-Arabic 스크립트로 표현되는 경우에만 보존될 수 있는지 여부. [101] 인도의 시인이자 작가인 Gulzar (두 나라와 두 언어 공동체에서 인기가 있지만 우르두어(대본)로만 글을 쓰고 데바나가리어를 읽는 데 어려움을 겪기 때문에 다른 사람들이 자신의 작품을 '필사'하게 함)이 2003년에 다음과 같이 주장했습니다. 하나의 통합된 힌두스타니어이며, 우르두어 문자는 Devanagari를 위해 포기되어 그룹 간의 차이와 갈등이 사라지도록 하여 "국민의 언어가 우세할 것"입니다. [105]
Willoughby & Aftab(2020)은 파키스탄의 경우 우르두어가 원래 독립운동의 성공에 기여한 계몽, 진보, 해방이라는 세련된 엘리트 언어의 이미지를 가지고 있다고 주장했다. [103] 그러나 이후 1947 파티션 이 하나 개의 언어 적 정체성 모든 주민을 단결 파키스탄의 국가 언어로 선택되었을 때, 그것은 주로 전체 인구의 56 %, 대부분의들이 사용 벵골어 (에서 심각한 경쟁에 직면 동 파키스탄 까지 그게 1971 년에 독립을 달성 으로 방글라데시 ), 영어에서 1,971 후. 파키스탄 에서 이슬람 동맹 의 지도력을 형성한 독립을 지지하는 엘리트 와 힌두교가 지배하는 두 엘리트인도의 의회당 은 영국 식민 시대에 영어로 교육을 받았고, 계속해서 영어로 운영되었고, 분단 이후 양국의 정치를 계속 지배하면서 자녀들을 영어 중학교에 보냈습니다. [103] 파키스탄의 성공회 엘리트들이 교육의 우르두어화를 시도했지만 성공의 정도는 다양했지만, 우르두어의 정치, 법률 시스템, 군대 또는 경제에 대한 성공적인 시도는 전혀 이루어지지 않았으며 이 모든 것이 영어로 굳건히 남아 있었습니다. [103] Zia-ul-Haq 장군 의 정권조차도(1977-1988) 중산층 우르두어 사용 가정에서 태어나 처음에는 파키스탄 사회의 빠르고 완전한 우르두어화를 열렬히 지지했지만(1981년에 '우르두어의 후원자'라는 명예 칭호를 얻었음) 1987년까지 친영적인 정책에 찬성하여 그의 노력의 대부분을 포기했습니다. [103] 1960년대 이래로 파키스탄의 우르두어 로비와 결국에는 우르두어 자체가 종교적 이슬람주의 및 정치적 국가 보수주의(그리고 궁극적으로는 펀자브어, 신디어, 발로치어와 같은 지역 언어와 함께 중하류층 및 중하류층)와 연관되어 왔습니다. ), 영어는 국제 지향적인 세속적이고 진보적인 좌파(그리고 결국에는 상류층과 중상류층)와 연관되어 왔습니다. [103]이러한 우르두어화에 대한 정부의 시도에도 불구하고 영어의 위상과 명성은 그 사이에 더욱 강해졌습니다. [103]
인구통계 및 지리적 분포
인도와 파키스탄에는 1억 명이 넘는 우르두어 원어민이 있습니다. 2011년 인구 조사에 따르면 인도에는 5,080만 명의 우르두어 사용자(전체 인구의 4.34%)가 있습니다. [106] [107] 2006년 파키스탄에는 약 1600만 명이 있습니다. [108] 영국, 사우디아라비아, 미국, 방글라데시 에는 수십만 명이 있습니다. [109] 그러나 우르두어가 그 중 하나인 힌두스타니어는 훨씬 더 널리 사용되어 북경어 와 영어에 이어 세계에서 세 번째로 많이 사용되는 언어를 형성합니다 . [110] 신택스 (문법) 형태 및 코어 어휘우르두어와 힌디어의 언어는 본질적으로 동일합니다. 따라서 언어학자들은 일반적으로 두 언어를 하나의 단일 언어로 간주하는 반면 일부는 사회 정치적 이유로 두 언어로 간주한다고 주장합니다. [111]
다른 언어와의 상호 작용으로 인해 우르두어는 파키스탄을 포함하여 사용되는 모든 곳에서 현지화되었습니다. 파키스탄의 우르두어는 변화를 겪었고 지역 언어에서 많은 단어를 통합하고 차용하여 파키스탄의 언어 사용자가 더 쉽게 자신을 구별할 수 있도록 하고 언어에 확실히 파키스탄 풍미를 부여합니다. 마찬가지로 인도에서 사용되는 우르두어는 러 크나 우와 델리 의 표준 우르두어 와 남인도 의 다크니 ( 데칸 ) 와 같은 많은 방언으로 구별될 수 있습니다 . [24] [52] 힌디어 와 우르두어의 유사성 때문에, 두 언어를 사용하는 사람들은 양측이 문학적 어휘를 사용하지 않는다면 쉽게 서로를 이해할 수 있습니다. [19]
파키스탄
우르두어는 파키스탄 전역에서 널리 사용되고 이해되지만 1992년 경에는 파키스탄 인구의 7%만이 우르두어를 모국어로 사용했습니다. [112] 다양한 인종( 파슈툰 , 타직 , 우즈벡 , 하자르비 등)의 거의 3백만 아프간 난민의 대부분이 , 그리고 25년 이상 파키스탄에 머물렀던 투르크멘어 )도 우르두어에 능통하게 되었습니다. [86] 그러나 1947년 이래로 무하지르족은 역사적으로 카라치 시의 대다수 인구를 형성해 왔습니다 . [113] 파키스탄의 우르두어로 일간 장 , 나와이와크트 등 많은 신문이 발행되고 있다., 그리고 Millat .
파키스탄의 어떤 지역도 우르두어를 모국어로 사용하지 않지만, 1947년 독립 후 인도를 떠난 파키스탄 의 이슬람 이민자( 무하지르 라고 함)의 첫 번째 언어로 사용됩니다 . [114] 우르두어는 화합의 상징으로 선택되었습니다. 1947년에 파키스탄의 새로운 국가가 탄생했습니다. 왜냐하면 그곳은 이미 영국령 인도 북부와 북서부의 이슬람교도들 사이 에서 링구아 프랑카 역할을 했기 때문 입니다 . [80] 파키스탄의 모든 주/영토 에서 쓰고 말하고 사용 하지만 다른 지방의 사람들은 모국어가 다를 수 있습니다. [ 인용 필요 ]
우르두어는 모국어가 다른 중 하나입니다 명 중 두 번째 언어 우르두어 스피커의 수백만을 생산하고 영어와 우르두어 매체 학교 시스템 모두에서 더 높은 중등 학교 필수 과목까지로 진행됩니다 파키스탄의 언어로 다시 주도하고있다 - 일부 우르두어 어휘는 파키스탄의 지역 언어에 동화되어 다양한 지역 파키스탄 언어의 어휘 흡수에 이르기까지 [115] . [116] 우르두어가 아닌 배경을 가진 일부 사람들은 이제 우르두어만 읽고 쓸 수 있습니다. 많은 사람들이 우르두어를 사용함에 따라 이 언어는 원어민이 사용하는 우르두어와 더욱 구별되는 독특한 파키스탄 풍미를 얻었고, 그 결과 언어 내에서 더 많은 다양성이 생겼습니다. [117][ 설명 필요 ]
인도
인도에서 우르두어는 과거에 이슬람 제국의 기지였던 대규모 이슬람 소수 민족이나 도시가 있는 곳에서 사용됩니다. 이러한 부분 포함 우타르 프라데시 , 마드 야 프라데시 , 비하르, 텔랑 가나 주 , 안드라 프라 데쉬 , 마하라 쉬트 라 ( Marathwada 및 Konkanis을), 카르 나 타카 와 같은 도시 러크 나우 , 델리, Malerkotla , 바 레일리 , 메 루트 , 사하 란 푸르 , Muzaffarnagar , 루르 , Deoband , 모라다 바드 , Azamgarh ,Bijnor , Najibabad , Rampur , 알리 가르 , 하바드 , 푸르 , 아그라 , 푸르 , Badaun , 보팔 , 바드 , 아우랑가바드 , [ 해명 필요 ] 방갈로 , 콜카타 , 소르 , 파트 , 있어 Gulbarga , Parbhani , 데드 , Malegaon , Bidar , 아지 메르 및 바드. [ 인용 필요 ] 일부 인도 학교에서는 우르두어를 제 1 언어로 가르치고 자체 강의 계획서와 시험을 운영합니다. 인도의 발리우드 산업은 특히 노래에서 우르두어를 자주 사용합니다. [118] [ 페이지 필요 ]
인도에는 405개의 우르두어 일간 신문을 포함하여 3,000개 이상의 우르두어 간행물이 있습니다. [119] [120] 와 같은 신문 네샤 뉴스 우르두어 , 사하라 우르두어 , 매일 Salar는 , 힌두 스탄 익스프레스 , 데일리 Pasban , Siasat 매일 , Munsif 데일리 와 Inqilab이 출판 방갈로르, Malegaon, 마이 소르, 하이데라바드, 및 배포됩니다 뭄바이 . [121]
다른 곳
남아시아 이외의 지역에서는 페르시아만 국가 의 주요 도시 중심에 거주하는 많은 수의 남아시아 이주 노동자 들이 사용합니다. 또한 영국, 미국, 캐나다, 독일, 뉴질랜드, 노르웨이 및 호주의 주요 도시 중심부에서 많은 이민자와 그 자녀들이 우르두어를 사용합니다. [122] 아랍어 와 함께 우르두어는 카탈루냐 에서 가장 많이 사용하는 이민자 언어 중 하나 입니다. [123]
문화적 정체성
식민지 인도
19세기 초 영국령 인도의 종교적, 사회적 분위기는 우르두어 기록의 발전에 중요한 역할을 했습니다. 힌디어 는 식민 통치에 직면하여 힌두교 정체성을 구축하고자 했던 사람들이 사용하는 고유한 기록이 되었습니다. [23] 힌디어가 힌두스타니인과 분리되어 뚜렷한 영적 정체성을 만들자, 우르두어는 영국령 인도의 무슬림 인구를 위한 결정적인 이슬람 정체성을 만드는 데 사용되었습니다. [124] 우르두어의 사용은 인도 북부에만 국한된 것이 아니라 봄베이 대통령, 벵골, 오리사 주, 타밀 나두의 영국령 인도 작가들에게도 문학 매체로 사용되었습니다. [125]
우르두어와 힌디어가 각각 이슬람교도와 힌두교도를 위한 종교적, 사회적 구성 수단이 되면서 각 기록부는 고유한 문자를 개발했습니다. 이슬람 전통에 따르면 , 예언자 무함마드 가 말하고 꾸란 의 계시에서 말한 아랍어 는 영적인 의미와 힘을 지니고 있습니다. [126] 우르두어는 북인도와 이후 파키스탄의 이슬람교도를 통합하는 수단으로 의도되었기 때문에 수정된 페르소아랍 문자를 채택했습니다. [127] [23]
파키스탄
우르두어는 남아시아의 이슬람교도들을 위한 조국 건설을 목적으로 파키스탄 이슬람 공화국이 수립됨에 따라 이슬람교도 정체성을 발전시키는 역할을 계속했습니다. 파키스탄 전역에서 사용되는 여러 언어와 방언은 통합 언어에 대한 절박한 요구를 일으켰습니다. 우르두어는 이미 영국령 인도 북부와 북서부의 이슬람교도들 사이 에서 링구아 프랑카 역할을 했기 때문에 1947년 파키스탄의 새로운 국가에 대한 통합의 상징으로 선택되었습니다 . [80] 우르두어는 또한 파키스탄 의 문화 및 사회 유산에 대한 레퍼토리로 간주됩니다 . [128]
우르두어와 이슬람이 함께 파키스탄의 국가 정체성 개발에 중요한 역할을하지만, (특히에서와 1950 년대에 분쟁 동 파키스탄 , 벵골어가 지배적 인 언어였다)는 국가의 상징으로 우르두어의 생각과 같은 실용성 도전 링구아을 프랑카 . 국가 상징으로서의 우르두어의 중요성은 영어와 벵골어가 구 동파키스탄(지금의 방글라데시 ) 에서 공식 언어로 받아들여졌을 때 이러한 분쟁으로 인해 경시되었습니다 . [129]
공식 상태
파키스탄
우르두어는 유일한 국가이며 파키스탄의 두 가지 공식 언어(영어와 함께) 중 하나입니다. [82] 이 사용 가능하고, 주별 언어 (다양한 영역에 걸쳐 음성 언어)이있는 반면, 전국 이해 도립 언어 파키스탄인의 7.57 %가 모국어 우르두어 말하고 있지만. [130] 공식 지위는 우르두어가 파키스탄 전역에서 제2 또는 제3 언어로 널리 이해되고 사용됨을 의미합니다. 그것은에서 사용되는 교육 , 문학 , 사무실과 법원의 비즈니스 [131] 실제로, 영어 정부의 높은 직급 대신 우르두어로 사용하고 있지만. [132] 제251조제1항파키스탄 헌법 은 우르두어를 정부의 유일한 언어로 시행하도록 규정하고 있지만 파키스탄 정부의 상위 계층에서는 영어가 계속해서 가장 널리 사용되는 언어입니다. [133]
인도
우르두어도에서 공식적으로 인정 언어 중 하나 인 인도 와의 다섯 개 가지 공식 언어 중 하나 카슈미르 의 두 가지 공식 언어 중 하나 텔랑 가나 주 도의 상태가 "추가 공식 언어"를 에 인도 국가 의 우타르 프라데시 , Bihar , Jharkhand , West Bengal 및 수도인 뉴델리. [134] [135] 구 잠무 카슈미르에서카슈미르 헌법 145조는 “국가의 공식 언어는 우르두어이지만, 입법부가 법률에 의해 달리 규정하지 않는 한 영어는 해당 국가의 모든 공식 목적을 위해 계속 사용되어야 합니다. 개헌 직전에 사용" [136]
인도는 있지만, 1969 년 우르두어의 진흥을위한 정부의 국을 설립 중앙 힌디어 이사회가 1960 년 이전에 설립되었으며, 힌두어의 증진은 더 나은 투자하고, 고급 [137] 우르두어의 상태는 홍보에 의해 약화 된 반면 힌디어. [138] Anjuman-e-Tariqqi Urdu, Deeni Talimi Council 및 Urdu Mushafiz Dasta와 같은 민간 인도 단체는 1970년대에 우르두어를 비하르어의 공식 언어로 재도입하는 캠페인을 성공적으로 시작한 Anjuman과 함께 우르두어의 사용과 보존을 촉진합니다. . [137]
방언
우르두어는 Dakhni , Dhakaiya , Rekhta 및 Modern Vernacular Urdu ( Delhi 지역 의 Khariboli 방언을 기반으로 함)를 포함하여 몇 가지 인정되는 방언이 있습니다. Dakhni (Dakani, Deccani, Desia, Mirgan라고도 함)는 인도 남부의 Deccan 지역 에서 사용됩니다 . 우르두어의 표준 방언에는 없는 아랍어, 페르시아어 , 차가타이어의 일부 어휘뿐만 아니라 마라티어 와 콘카니 어의 어휘가 혼합되어 있다는 점에서 구별됩니다 . Dakhini는 Maharashtra , Telangana , Andhra Pradesh 의 모든 지역에서 널리 사용됩니다.그리고 카르나타카 . 우르두어는 인도의 다른 지역과 마찬가지로 읽고 씁니다. 우르두어로 된 여러 일간 신문과 여러 월간 잡지가 이 주에서 발행됩니다. [ 인용 필요 ]
Dhakaiya 우르두어 의 도시에 방언의 기본입니다 올드 다카 에서 방글라데시 받는 거슬러 올라가는, 무굴 시대 . 그러나 20세기 벵골어 운동 이후 원어민들 사이에서도 그 인기는 점차 줄어들고 있다 . 방글라데시 정부에서 공식적으로 인정하지 않습니다 . 방글라데시에서 좌초된 파키스탄인이 사용하는 우르두어 는 이 방언과 다릅니다. [ 인용 필요 ]
코드 전환
우르두어와 영어에 익숙한 많은 2개 국어 또는 다국어 우르두어 사용자 는 특정 지역과 특정 사회 그룹 간에 코드 전환 (" 우르드어 " 라고 함)을 표시 합니다 . 2015년 8월 14 일 파키스탄 정부는 실행 된 ILM Urdish에서 균일 한 교육 과정으로, 파키스탄의 움직임을. 파키스탄 연방 장관인 Ahsan Iqbal 은 "이제 정부는 우르두어와 영어를 결합한 새로운 매체를 학생들에게 제공하기 위해 새로운 커리큘럼을 만들고 있으며 이름을 우르드어로 지정할 것"이라고 말했습니다. [139] [140] [141]
현대 표준 힌디어와 비교
표준 우르두어는 종종 표준 힌디어 와 비교 됩니다 . [142] 같은 언어인 힌두스타니어 (또는 힌디어-우르두어) 의 표준 등록으로 간주되는 우르두어와 힌디어 는 핵심 어휘 와 문법을 공유합니다 . [143] [18] [19] [144]
종교적 연관성을 제외하고 차이점은 크게 표준 형식 으로 제한됩니다 . 표준 우르두어는 전통적으로 페르시아 알파벳 의 나스탈릭 스타일 로 작성되었으며 기술 및 문학 어휘의 출처로 페르시아어와 아랍어에 크게 의존하는 반면, 표준 힌디어는 [145] 일반적으로 데바나가리로 쓰여지고 산스크리트어를 그립니다 . [146] 그러나 둘 다 기본 프라크리트어와 산스크리트어 단어의 핵심 어휘와 많은 수의 아랍어와 페르시아어 차용어를 공유하며, 언어학자들은 이를 동일한 언어의 두 가지 표준화된 형식으로 간주합니다. [147] [148]그리고 그 차이를 사회언어학적으로 고려하십시오 . [149] 별도로 몇 가지 분류 그들. [150] 두 언어는 페르시아어에서 산스크리트어 어휘에 이르는 방언 연속체 에서 단일 언어(힌두스탄어 또는 힌디우르두어)로 간주되는 경우가 많습니다 . [138] 올드 우르두어 사전은 이제 힌디어에 존재하는 산스크리트어 단어의 대부분을 포함하고있다. [151] [152]
학문적 또는 기술적 어휘에 의존하는 문학적 및 전문화된 맥락에서 상호 이해도가 감소합니다. 긴 대화에서 일부 우르두어 음소 의 형식적 어휘와 발음의 차이 가 눈에 띄지만, 많은 힌디어 원어민도 이러한 음소를 발음합니다. [153] 음운학적 수준에서 두 언어의 화자는 단어 선택의 페르소아랍어 또는 산스크리트어 기원을 자주 인식하며, 이는 해당 단어의 발음에 영향을 미칩니다. [154] 우르두어 화자들은 산스크리트어 기원의 단어에서 발견되는 자음 클러스터를 분해하기 위해 모음을 삽입하지만 아랍어와 페르시아어 차용어에서는 정확하게 발음합니다. [155] 이후 종교적 민족주의의 결과로영국령 인도의 분할 과 지속적인 공동체 긴장으로 인해 힌디어와 우르두어를 모국어로 사용하는 사람들은 종종 그들이 별개의 언어라고 주장합니다.
힌디어와 우르두어 의 문법 은 공유되지만 [143] [156] 형식적인 우르두어는 페르시아어 "-e-" 이자파트 문법 구조( Hammam-e-Qadimi 또는 Nishan-e-Haider에서와 같이 )를 더 많이 사용합니다. 힌디 어. 우르두어는 (" mujh-ko " 에서와 같이) "ko" 형태의 인칭 대명사를 더 자주 사용하는 반면, 힌디어는 (" mujhe " 에서와 같이) 축약된 형태를 더 자주 사용합니다 . [157]
국가별 우르두어 사용자
다음 표는 일부 국가의 우르두어 사용자 수를 보여줍니다.
국가 | 인구 | 모국어 사용자로서의 우르두어 | 원어민 또는 제2외국어로 매우 유창한 화자 |
---|---|---|---|
![]() |
1,296,834,042 [158] | 50,772,631 [80] | 12,151,715 [80] |
![]() |
207,862,518 [159] | 15,100,000 [160] | 94,000,000 [ 인용 필요 ] |
![]() |
34,940,837 [154] | – | 1,048,225 [154] |
![]() |
33,091,113 [161] | 757,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
29,717,587 [162] | 691,546 [163] | – |
![]() |
65,105,246 [164] | 400,000 [165] | – |
![]() |
329,256,465 [166] | 397,502 2009-2013 [167] | – |
![]() |
159,453,001 [168] | 2006년 추정치 250,000 [169] | – |
![]() |
35,881,659 [170] | 243,090 2016 인구 조사 [171] | – |
![]() |
2,363,569 [172] | 173,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
4,613,241 [173] | 95,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
83,024,745 [174] | 88,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
1,442,659 [175] | 74,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
5,372,191 [176] | 34,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
81,257,239 [177] | 24,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
![]() |
80,457,737 [178] | 23,000 [ 인용 필요 ] | – |
음운
자음
순음 | 이의 | 폐포 | 레트로플렉스 | 구개 | 막의 | 유불라 | 글로탈 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
비강 | m م | n ä | ㅍㅍ ㅅㅅ | ||||||
파열음 / 아 프리케이트 |
무성의 | 피 پ | t ت | ʈ ٹ | tʃ چ | K ک | ( q ) ㄷ | ||
무언 흡인 | pʰ پھ | T تھ | ʈʰ ٹھ | ㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅌㅌ ㅌㅌㅋ | kʰ کھ | ||||
유성 | ㄴ 나 | d د | ɖ ڈ | dʒ ج | 쪽에서 소리를냅니다 گ | ||||
음성 흡인 | bʰ بھ | dʰ دھ | 쩝 쩝쩝 | dʒʰ جھ | gʰ گھ | ||||
플랩 / 트릴 | plain | r ر | ɽ ڑ | ||||||
voiced aspirated | ɽʱ ڑھ | ||||||||
Fricative | voiceless | f ف | s س | ʃ ش | x خ | ɦ ہ | |||
voiced | ʋ و | z ز | (ʒ) ژ | (ɣ) غ | |||||
Approximant | l ل | j ی |
- Notes
- Marginal and non-universal phonemes are in parentheses.
- /ɣ/ is post-velar.[180]
Vowels
Front | Central | Back | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
short | long | short | long | short | long | ||
Close | oral | ɪ | iː | ʊ | uː | ||
nasal | ɪ̃ | ĩː | ʊ̃ | ũː | |||
Close-mid | oral | eː | ə | oː | |||
nasal | ẽː | ə̃ | õː | ||||
Open-mid | oral | ɛ | ɛː | ɔː | |||
nasal | ɛ̃ː | ɔ̃ː | |||||
Open | oral | (æː) | aː | ||||
nasal | (æ̃ː) | ãː |
- Note
- Marginal and non-universal vowels are in parentheses.
Vocabulary
Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, a 19th-century lexicographer who compiled the Farhang-e-Asifiya Urdu dictionary, estimated that 75% of Urdu words have their etymological roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit,[183][184][185] and approximately 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit and Prakrit.[186][187] Urdu has borrowed words from Persian and to a lesser extent, Arabic through Persian,[188] to the extent of about 25%[183][184][185][189] to 30% of Urdu's vocabulary.[190] A table illustrated by the linguist Afroz Taj of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill likewise illustrates the amount of Persian loanwords to native Sanskrit-derived words in literary Urdu as comprising a 1:3 ratio.[185]

The "trend towards Persianisation" started in the 18th century by the Delhi school of Urdu poets, though other writers, such as Meeraji, wrote in a Sanskritised form of the language.[192] There has been a move towards hyper Persianisation in Pakistan since 1947, which has been adopted by much of the country's writers;[193] as such, some Urdu texts can be composed of 70% Perso-Arabic loanwords just as some Persian texts can have 70% Arabic vocabulary.[194] Some Pakistani Urdu speakers have incorporated Hindi vocabulary into their speech as a result of exposure to Indian entertainment.[195][196] In India, Urdu has not diverged from Hindi as much as it has in Pakistan.[197]
Most borrowed words in Urdu are nouns and adjectives.[198] Many of the words of Arabic origin have been adopted through Persian,[183] and have different pronunciations and nuances of meaning and usage than they do in Arabic. There are also a smaller number of borrowings from Portuguese. Some examples for Portuguese words borrowed into Urdu are cabi ("chave": key), girja ("igreja": church), kamra ("cámara": room), qamīz ("camisa": shirt).[199]
Although the word Urdu is derived from the Turkic word ordu (army) or orda, from which English horde is also derived,[200] Turkic borrowings in Urdu are minimal[201] and Urdu is also not genetically related to the Turkic languages. Urdu words originating from Chagatai and Arabic were borrowed through Persian and hence are Persianised versions of the original words. For instance, the Arabic ta' marbuta ( ة ) changes to he ( ه ) or te ( ت ).[202][note 2] Nevertheless, contrary to popular belief, Urdu did not borrow from the Turkish language, but from Chagatai, a Turkic language from Central Asia. Urdu and Turkish both borrowed from Arabic and Persian, hence the similarity in pronunciation of many Urdu and Turkish words.[203]
Formality
Urdu in its less formalised register has been referred to as a rek̤h̤tah (ریختہ, [reːxtaː]), meaning "rough mixture". The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes referred to as zabān-i Urdū-yi muʿallá (زبانِ اُردُوئے معلّٰى [zəbaːn eː ʊrdu eː moəllaː]), the "Language of the Exalted Camp", referring to the Imperial army[204] or in approximate local translation Lashkari Zabān (لشکری زبان [lʌʃkɜ:i: zɑ:bɑ:n])[205] or simply just Lashkari.[206] The etymology of the word used in Urdu, for the most part, decides how polite or refined one's speech is. For example, Urdu speakers would distinguish between پانی pānī and آب āb, both meaning "water": the former is used colloquially and has older Sanskrit origins, whereas the latter is used formally and poetically, being of Persian origin.[citation needed]
If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is considered to be more formal and grander. Similarly, if Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the izafat, are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also considered more formal and grander. If a word is inherited from Sanskrit, the level of speech is considered more colloquial and personal.[207]
Writing system
Urdu is written right-to left in an extension of the Persian alphabet, which is itself an extension of the Arabic alphabet. Urdu is associated with the Nastaʿlīq style of Persian calligraphy, whereas Arabic is generally written in the Naskh or Ruq'ah styles. Nasta’liq is notoriously difficult to typeset, so Urdu newspapers were hand-written by masters of calligraphy, known as kātib or khush-nawīs, until the late 1980s. One handwritten Urdu newspaper, The Musalman, is still published daily in Chennai.[208]
A highly Persianised and technical form of Urdu was the lingua franca of the law courts of the British administration in Bengal and the North-West Provinces & Oudh. Until the late 19th century, all proceedings and court transactions in this register of Urdu were written officially in the Persian script. In 1880, Sir Ashley Eden, the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal in colonial India abolished the use of the Persian alphabet in the law courts of Bengal and ordered the exclusive use of Kaithi, a popular script used for both Urdu and Hindi; in the Bihar Province, the court language was Urdu written in the Kaithi script.[209][210][211][212] Kaithi's association with Urdu and Hindi was ultimately eliminated by the political contest between these languages and their scripts, in which the Persian script was definitively linked to Urdu.[213]
More recently in India, Urdu speakers have adopted Devanagari for publishing Urdu periodicals and have innovated new strategies to mark Urdu in Devanagari as distinct from Hindi in Devanagari. Such publishers have introduced new orthographic features into Devanagari for the purpose of representing the Perso-Arabic etymology of Urdu words. One example is the use of अ (Devanagari a) with vowel signs to mimic contexts of ع (‘ain), in violation of Hindi orthographic rules. For Urdu publishers, the use of Devanagari gives them a greater audience, whereas the orthographic changes help them preserve a distinct identity of Urdu.[214]
Some poets from Bengal, namely Qazi Nazrul Islam, have historically used the Bengali script to write Urdu poetry like Prem Nagar Ka Thikana Karle and Mera Beti Ki Khela, as well as bilingual Bengali-Urdu poems like Alga Koro Go Khõpar Bãdhon, Juboker Chholona and Mera Dil Betab Kiya.[215][216][217] Dhakaiya Urdu is a colloquial non-standard dialect of Urdu which was typically not written. However, organisations seeking to preserve the dialect have begun transcribing the dialect in the Bengali script.[note 3][218][219]
See also
- List of Urdu-language poets
- List of Urdu-language writers
- National Translation Mission (NTM)
- Persian and Urdu
- States of India by Urdu speakers
- Urdu in the United Kingdom
- Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation
- Urdu Digest
- Urdu in Aurangabad
- Urdu Informatics
- Urdu keyboard
- Glossary of the British Raj
Notes
- ^ Urdu has some form of official status in the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, as well as the national capital territory of Delhi and the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.[13]
- ^ An example can be seen in the word "need" in Urdu. Urdu uses the Persian version ضرورت rather than the original Arabic ضرورة. See: John T. Platts "A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English" (1884) Page 749. Urdu and Hindi use Persian pronunciation in their loanwords, rather than that of Arabic– for instance rather than pronouncing ض as the emphatic consonant "ḍ", the original sound in Arabic, Urdu uses the Persian pronunciation "z". See: John T. Platts "A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English" (1884) Page 748
- ^ Organisations like Dhakaiya Sobbasi Jaban and Dhakaiya Movement, among others, consistently write Dhakaiya Urdu using the Bengali script.
References
- ^ Carl Skutsch (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Taylor & Francis. pp. 2234–. ISBN 978-1-135-19395-9.
- ^ Urdu at Ethnologue (24th ed., 2021)
- ^ Urdu at Ethnologue (24th ed., 2021)
- ^ Hindustani (2005). Keith Brown (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
- ^ Gaurav Takkar. "Short Term Programmes". punarbhava.in. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- ^ "Indo-Pakistani Sign Language", Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
- ^ "Urdu is Telangana's second official language". The Indian Express. 16 November 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
- ^ "Urdu is second official language in Telangana as state passes Bill". The News Minute. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
- ^ "Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 - Chapter 1: Founding Provisions". www.gov.za. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ^ "Urdu"Archived 19 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica (5 December 2019), Urdu language, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 17 October 2020,
member of the Indo-Aryan group within the Indo-European family of languages. Urdu is spoken as a first language by nearly 70 million people and as a second language by more than 100 million people, predominantly in Pakistan and India. It is the official state language of Pakistan and is also officially recognized, or “scheduled,” in the constitution of India.
- ^ Urdu (n), Oxford English Dictionary, June 2020, retrieved 11 September 2020,
An Indo-Aryan language of northern South Asia (now esp. Pakistan), closely related to Hindi but written in a modified form of the Arabic script and having many loanwords from Persian and Arabic.
- ^ a b c Muzaffar, Sharmin; Behera, Pitambar (2014). "Error analysis of the Urdu verb markers: a comparative study on Google and Bing machine translation platforms". Aligarh Journal of Linguistics. 4 (1–2): 1.
Modern Standard Urdu, a register of the Hindustani language, is the national language, lingua-franca and is one of the two official languages along with English in Pakistan and is spoken in all over the world. It is also one of the 22 scheduled languages and officially recognized languages in the Constitution of India and has been conferred status of the official language in many Indian states of Bihar, Telangana, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and New Delhi. Urdu is one of the members of the new or modern Indo-Aryan language group within the Indo-European family of languages.
- ^ Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy. MIT Press. pp. 469–. ISBN 978-0-262-03470-8. Quote: "The Eighth Schedule recognizes India’s national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India’s cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two."
- ^ Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58–. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. Quote: "As Mahapatra says: “It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment” ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions.
- ^ "National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission" (PDF). MOE Nepal. 1994. p. Appendix one. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
- ^ Gibson, Mary (13 May 2011). Indian Angles: English Verse in Colonial India from Jones to Tagore. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0821443583.
Bayly's description of Hindustani (roughly Hindi/Urdu) is helpful here; he uses the term Urdu to represent "the more refined and Persianised form of the common north Indian language Hindustani" (Empire and Information, 193); Bayly more or less follows the late eighteenth-century scholar Sirajuddin Ali Arzu, who proposed a typology of language that ran from "pure Sanskrit, through popular and regional variations of Hindustani to Urdu, which incorporated many loan words from Persian and Arabic. His emphasis on the unity of languages reflected the view of the Sanskrit grammarians and also affirmed the linguistic unity of the north Indian ecumene. What emerged was a kind of register of language types which were appropriate to different conditions. ...But the abiding impression is of linguistic plurality running through the whole society and an easier adaptation to circumstances in both spoken and written speech" (193). The more Persianized the language, the more likely it was to be written in Arabic script; the more Sanskritized the language; the more likely it was to be written in Devanagari.
- ^ a b Basu, Manisha (2017). The Rhetoric of Hindutva. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107149878.
Urdu, like Hindi, was a standardized register of the Hindustani language deriving from the Dehlavi dialect and emerged in the eighteenth century under the rule of the late Mughals.
- ^ a b c Gube, Jan; Gao, Fang (2019). Education, Ethnicity and Equity in the Multilingual Asian Context. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-981-13-3125-1.
The national language of India and Pakistan 'Standard Urdu' is mutually intelligible with 'Standard Hindi' because both languages share the same Indic base and are all but indistinguishable in phonology.
- ^ Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. p. 385. ISBN 978-3-11-088814-0.
With the consolidation of the different linguistic bases of Khari Boli there were three distinct varieties of Hindi-Urdu: the High Hindi with predominant Sanskrit vocabulary, the High-Urdu with predominant Perso-Arabic vocabulary and casual or colloquial Hindustani which was commonly spoken among both the Hindus and Muslims in the provinces of north India. The last phase of the emergence of Hindi and Urdu as pluricentric national varieties extends from the late 1920s till the partition of India in 1947.
- ^ a b Kiss, Tibor; Alexiadou, Artemis (10 March 2015). Syntax - Theory and Analysis. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 1479. ISBN 978-3-11-036368-5.
- ^ Metcalf, Barbara D. (2014). Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900. Princeton University Press. pp. 207–. ISBN 978-1-4008-5610-7.
The basis of that shift was the decision made by the government in 1837 to replace Persian as court language by the various vernaculars of the country. Urdu was identified as the regional vernacular in Bihar, Oudh, the North-Western Provinces, and Punjab, and hence was made the language of government across upper India.
- ^ a b c Ahmad, Rizwan (1 July 2008). "Scripting a new identity: The battle for Devanagari in nineteenth century India". Journal of Pragmatics. 40 (7): 1163–1183. doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2007.06.005.
- ^ a b Schmidt, Ruth Laila (8 December 2005). Urdu: An Essential Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-71319-6.
Historically, Urdu developed from the sub-regional language of the Delhi area, which became a literary language in the eighteenth century. Two quite similar standard forms of the language developed in Delhi, and in Lucknow in modern Uttar Pradesh. Since 1947, a third form, Karachi standard Urdu, has evolved.
- ^ a b Mahapatra, B. P. (1989). Constitutional languages. Presses Université Laval. p. 553. ISBN 978-2-7637-7186-1.
Modern Urdu is a fairly homogenous language. An older southern form, Deccani Urdu, is now obsolete. Two varieties however, must be mentioned viz. the Urdu of Delhi, and the Urdu of Lucknow. Both are almost identical, differing only in some minor points. Both of these varieties are considered 'Standard Urdu' with some minor divergences.
- ^ Dwyer, Rachel (27 September 2006). Filming the Gods: Religion and Indian Cinema. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-38070-1.
- ^ Mikael Parkvall, "Världens 100 största språk 2007" (The World's 100 Largest Languages in 2007), in Nationalencyklopedin. Asterisks mark the 2010 estimates Archived 11 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine for the top dozen languages.
- ^ "Urdu 11th most spoken language in world: Study". Deccan Chronicle. 20 January 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ "What are the top 200 most spoken languages?". Ethnologue. 3 October 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
- ^ Dua, Hans R. (1992). Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language. In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
- ^ Kachru, Yamuna (2008), Braj Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.), Hindi-Urdu-Hindustani, Language in South Asia, Cambridge University Press, p. 82, ISBN 978-0-521-78653-9, archived from the original on 24 January 2020
- ^ Qalamdaar, Azad (27 December 2010). "Hamari History". Hamari Boli Foundation. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010.
Historically, Hindustani developed in the post-12th century period under the impact of the incoming Afghans and Turks as a linguistic modus vivendi from the sub-regional apabhramshas of north-western India. Its first major folk poet was the great Persian master, Amir Khusrau (1253–1325), who is known to have composed dohas (couplets) and riddles in the newly-formed speech, then called 'Hindavi'. Through the medieval time, this mixed speech was variously called by various speech sub-groups as 'Hindavi', 'Zaban-e-Hind', 'Hindi', 'Zaban-e-Dehli', 'Rekhta', 'Gujarii. 'Dakkhani', 'Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Mualla', 'Zaban-e-Urdu', or just 'Urdu'. By the late 11th century, the name 'Hindustani' was in vogue and had become the lingua franca for most of northern India. A sub-dialect called Khari Boli was spoken in and around Delhi region at the start of 13th century when the Delhi Sultanate was established. Khari Boli gradually became the prestige dialect of Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu) and became the basis of modern Standard Hindi & Urdu.
- ^ Schmidt, Ruth Laila. "1 Brief history and geography of Urdu 1.1 History and sociocultural position." The Indo-Aryan Languages 3 (2007): 286.
- ^ Malik, Shahbaz, Shareef Kunjahi, Mir Tanha Yousafi, Sanawar Chadhar, Alam Lohar, Abid Tamimi, Anwar Masood et al. "Census History of Punjabi Speakers in Pakistan."
- ^ Mody, Sujata Sudhakar (2008). Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920. University of California, Berkeley. p. 7.
...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).
- ^ English-Urdu Learner's Dictionary. Multi Linguis. 6 March 2021. ISBN 978-1-005-94089-8.
** History (Simplified) ** Proto-Indo European > Proto-Indo-Iranian > Proto-Indo-Aryan > Vedic Sanskrit > Classical Sanskrit > Sauraseni Prakrit > Sauraseni Apabhramsa > Old Hindi > Hindustani > Urdu
- ^ a b Kesavan, B. S. (1997). History Of Printing And Publishing in India. National Book Trust, India. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0.
It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.
- ^ Sisir Kumar Das (2005). History of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 142. ISBN 978-81-7201-006-5.
The most important trend in the history of Hindi-Urdu is the process of Persianization on the one hand and that of Sanskritization on the other. Amrit Rai offers evidence to show that although the employment of Perso-Arabic script for the language which was akin to Hindi/Hindavi or old Hindi was the first step towards the establishment of the separate identity of Urdu, it was called Hindi for a long time. "The final and complete change-over to the new name took place after the content of the language had undergone a drastic change." He further observes: "In the light of the literature that has come down to us, for about six hundred years, the development of Hindi/Hindavi seems largely to substantiate the view of the basic unity of the two languages. Then, some time in the first quarter of the eighteenth century, the cleavage seems to have begun." Rai quotes from Sadiq, who points out how it became a "systematic policy of poets and scholars" of the eighteenth century to weed out, what they called and thought, "vulgar words." This weeding out meant "the elimination, along with some rough and unmusical plebian words, of a large number of Hindi words for the reason that to the people brought up in Persian traditions they appeared unfamiliar and vulgar." Sadiq concludes: hence the paradox that this crusade against Persian tyranny, instead of bringing Urdu close to the indigenous element, meant in reality a wider gulf between it and the popular speech. But what differentiated Urdu still more from the local dialects was a process of ceaseless importation from Persian. It may seem strange that Urdu writers in rebellion against Persian should decide to draw heavily on Persian vocabulary, idioms, forms and sentiments. . . . Around 1875 in his word Urdu Sarf O Nahr, however, he presented a balanced view pointing out that attempts of the Maulavis to Persianize and of the Pandits to Sanskritize the language were not only an error but against the natural laws of linguistic growth. The common man, he pointed out, used both Persian and Sanskrit words without any qualms;
- ^ a b c Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 30 June 2019.
- ^ "Two Languages or One?". hindiurduflagship.org. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
Hindi and Urdu developed from the "khari boli" dialect spoken in the Delhi region of northern India.
- ^ Farooqi, M. (2012). Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-02692-7.
Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims. He noted that Urdu is not the language of Muslims alone, although Muslims may have played a larger role in making it a literary language. Hindu poets and writers could and did bring specifically Hindu cultural elements into Urdu and these were accepted.
- ^ King, Christopher Rolland (1999). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-19-565112-6.
Educated Muslims, for the most part supporters of Urdu, rejected the Hindu linguistic heritage and emphasized the joint Hindu-Muslim origins of Urdu.
- ^ Taylor, Insup; Olson, David R. (1995). Scripts and Literacy: Reading and Learning to Read Alphabets, Syllabaries, and Characters. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-7923-2912-1.
Urdu emerged as the language of contact between Hindu inhabitants and Muslim invaders to India in the 11th century.
- ^ Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis. University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 27.
Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
- ^ Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4. Tata Institute of Social Sciences. 1943. p. 264.
... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.
- ^ "Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 25 February 2020.
The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country. Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.
- ^ Zahur-ud-Din (1985). Development of Urdu Language and Literature in the Jammu Region. Gulshan Publishers. p. 13.
The beginning of the language, now known as Urdu, should therefore, be placed in this period of the earlier Hindu Muslim contact in the Sindh and Punjab areas that took place in early quarter of the 8th century A.D.
- ^ Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritised registers many of these words are replaced by tatsama forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.
- ^ a b Bhat, M. Ashraf (2017). The Changing Language Roles and Linguistic Identities of the Kashmiri Speech Community. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4438-6260-8.
Although it has borrowed a large number of lexical items from Persian and some from Turkish, it is a derivative of Hindvi (also called 'early Urdu'), the parent of both modern Hindi and Urdu. It originated as a new, common language of Delhi, which has been called Hindavi or Dahlavi by Amir Khusrau. After the advent of the Mughals on the stage of Indian history, the Hindavi language enjoyed greater space and acceptance. Persian words and phrases came into vogue. The Hindavi of that period was known as Rekhta, or Hindustani, and only later as Urdu. Perfect amity and tolerance between Hindus and Muslims tended to foster Rekhta or Urdu, which represented the principle of unity in diversity, thus marking a feature of Indian life at its best. The ordinary spoken version ('bazaar Urdu') was almost identical to the popularly spoken version of Hindi. Most prominent scholars in India hold the view that Urdu is neither a Muslim nor a Hindu language; it is an outcome of a multicultural and multi-religious encounter.
- ^ a b Strnad, Jaroslav (2013). Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-25489-3.
Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending -a in the dir. plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings.
- ^ a b c d Rahman, Tariq (2001). From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History (PDF). Oxford University Press. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-0-19-906313-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
- ^ a b Khan, Abdul Rashid (2001). The All India Muslim Educational Conference: Its Contribution to the Cultural Development of Indian Muslims, 1886-1947. Oxford University Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-19-579375-8.
After the conquest of the Deccan, Urdu received the liberal patronage of the courts of Golconda and Bijapur. Consequently, Urdu borrowed words from the local language of Telugu and Marathi as well as from Sanskrit.
- ^ Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978). Life and Culture in Medieval India. Kamal Prakashan. p. 311.
Under the liberal patronage of the courts of Golconda and Bijapur, Urdu borrowed words from the local languages like Telugu and Marathi as well as from Sanskrit, but its themes were moulded on Persian models.
- ^ Kesavan, Bellary Shamanna (1985). History of Printing and Publishing in India: Origins of printing and publishing in the Hindi heartland. National Book Trust. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-237-2120-0.
The Mohammedans of the Deccan thus called their Hindustani tongue Dakhani (Dakhini), Gujari or Bhaka (Bhakha) which was a symbol of their belonging to Muslim conquering and ruling group in the Deccan and South India where overwhelming number of Hindus spoke Marathi, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil.
- ^ "Amīr Khosrow - Indian poet".
- ^ Jaswant Lal Mehta (1980). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. 1. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 10. ISBN 9788120706170.
- ^ Bakshi, Shiri Ram; Mittra, Sangh (2002). Hazart Nizam-Ud-Din Auliya and Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti. Criterion. ISBN 9788179380222.
- ^ "Urdu language". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Rauf Parekh (25 August 2014). "Literary Notes: Common misconceptions about Urdu". dawn.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
Urdu did not get its present name till late 18th Century and before that had had a number of different names – including Hindi, Hindvi, Hindustani, Dehlvi, Gujri, Dakkani, Lahori and even Moors – though it was born much earlier.
- ^ Malik, Muhammad Kamran, and Syed Mansoor Sarwar. "Named entity recognition system for postpositional languages: urdu as a case study." International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and Applications 7.10 (2016): 141-147.
- ^ Clyne, Michael G. (1992). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. p. 383. ISBN 9783110128550.
- ^ Alyssa Ayres (23 July 2009). Speaking Like a State: Language and Nationalism in Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. p. 19. ISBN 9780521519311.
- ^ First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913–1936. Brill Academic Publishers. 1993. p. 1024. ISBN 9789004097964.
Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian, which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language, the common language of the country continued to be Hindi, derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit. On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language, which brought a new language, Urdu, into existence. Sir George Grierson, in the Linguistic Survey of India, assigns no distinct place to Urdu, but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi.
- ^ Faruqi, Shamsur Rahman (2003), Sheldon Pollock (ed.), A Long History of Urdu Literary Culture Part 1, Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions From South Asia, University of California Press, p. 806, ISBN 978-0-520-22821-4
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Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions. That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets (and watch the same Bollywood films) have no problems understanding each other -- they'd both say yeh kitne kaa hay for 'How much is it?' -- but the written form for Hindi will be यह कितने का है? and the Urdu one will be یہ کتنے کا ہے؟ Hindi is written from left to right in the Devanagari script, and is the official language of India, along with English. Urdu, on the other hand, is written from right to left in the Nastaliq script (a modified form of the Arabic script) and is the national language of Pakistan. It's also one of the official languages of the Indian states of Bihar and Jammu & Kashmir. Considered as one, these tongues constitute the second most spoken language in the world, sometimes called Hindustani. In their daily lives, Hindi and Urdu speakers communicate in their 'different' languages without major problems. ... Both Hindi and Urdu developed from Classical Sanskrit, which appeared in the Indus Valley (modern Pakistan and northwest India) at about the start of the Common Era. The first old Hindi (or Apabhransha) poetry was written in the year 769 AD, and by the European Middle Ages it became known as 'Hindvi'. Muslim Turks invaded the Punjab in 1027 and took control of Delhi in 1193. They paved the way for the Islamic Mughal Empire, which ruled northern India from the 16th century until it was defeated by the British Raj in the mid-19th century. It was at this time that the language of this book began to take form, a mixture of Hindvi grammar with Arabic, Persian and Turkish vocabulary. The Muslim speakers of Hindvi began to write in the Arabic script, creating Urdu, while the Hindu population incorporated the new words but continued to write in Devanagari script.
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In the nineteenth century in north India, before the extension of the British system of government schools, Urdu was not used in its written form as a medium of instruction in traditional Islamic schools, where Muslim children were taught Persian and Arabic, the traditional languages of Islam and Muslim culture. It was only when the Muslim elites of north India and the British decided that Muslims were backward in education in relation to Hindus and should be encouraged to attend government schools that it was felt necessary to offer Urdu in the Persian-Arabic script as an inducement to Muslims to attend the schools. And it was only after the Hindi-Urdu controversy developed that Urdu, once disdained by Muslim elites in north India and not even taught in the Muslim religious schools in the early nineteenth century, became a symbol of Muslim identity second to Islam itself. A second point revealed by the Hindi-Urdu controversy in north India is how symbols may be used to separate peoples who, in fact, share aspects of culture. It is well known that ordinary Muslims and Hindus alike spoke the same language in the United Provinces in the nineteenth century, namely Hindustani, whether called by that name or whether called Hindi, Urdu, or one of the regional dialects such as Braj or Awadhi. Although a variety of styles of Hindi-Urdu were in use in the nineteenth century among different social classes and status groups, the legal and administrative elites in courts and government offices, Hindus and Muslims alike, used Urdu in the Persian-Arabic script.
- ^ McGregor, Stuart (2003), "The Progress of Hindi, Part 1", Literary cultures in history: reconstructions from South Asia, p. 912, ISBN 978-0-520-22821-4 in Pollock (2003)
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British language policy both resulted from and contributed to the larger political processes which eventually led to the partition of British India into India and Pakistan, an outcome almost exactly paralleled by the linguistic partition of the Hindi-Urdu continuum into highly Sanskritized Hindi and highly Persianized Urdu.
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There have been and are many great Hindu poets who wrote in Urdu. And they learned Hinduism by readings its religious texts in Urdu. Gulzar Dehlvi—who nonliterary name is Anand Mohan Zutshi (b. 1926)—is one among many examples.
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In the 1980s and '90s, at least three million Afghans--mostly Pashtun--fled to Pakistan, where a substantial number spent several years being exposed to Hindi- and Urdu-language media, especially Bollywood films and songs, and being educated in Urdu-language schools, both of which contributed to the decline of Dari, even among urban Pashtuns.
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Most Afghans in Kabul understand and/or speak Hindi, thanks to the popularity of Indian cinema in the country.
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Desexualizing campaigns dovetailed with the attempt to purge Urdu of Sanskrit and Prakrit words at the same time as Hindi literateurs tried to purge Hindi of Persian and Arabic words. The late-nineteenth century politics of Urdu and Hindi, later exacerbated by those of India and Pakistan, had the unfortunate result of certain poets being excised from the canon.
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The style of Urdu, even in Pakistan, is changing from "high" Urdu to colloquial Urdu (more like Hindustani, which would have pleased M.K. Gandhi).
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The everyday speech of well over 50,000,000 persons of all communities in the north of India and in West Pakistan is the expression of a common language, Hindustani.
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It is generally admitted that Urdu is a dying language. What is not generally admitted is that it is a dying National language. What used to be called Hindustani, the spoken language of the largest number of Indians, contains more elements of Urdu than Sanskrit academics tolerate, but it is still the language of the people.
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Phrases like 'dying language' are often used to describe the condition of Urdu in India and indicators like 'the number of Urdu-medium schools' present a litany of bad news with respect to the present conditions and future of the language.
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Arvind Kala is not much off the mark when he says 'Urdu is a dying language (in India), but it is Hindi movie dialogues which have heightened appreciation of Urdu in India. Thanks to Hindi films, knowledge of Urdu is seen as a sign of sophistication among the cognoscent of the North.'
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The third force leading to the divergence between Hindi and Urdu was the parallel and associated development of Hindu and Muslim revivalisms and communal antagonism, which had the consequence for the Hindi–Urdu conflict of reinforcing the tendency to identify Urdu as the language of Muslims and Hindi as the language of Hindus. Although objectively this is not entirely true even today, it is undeniable historical tendency has been in this direction. (...) Many Hindus also continue to write in Urdu, both in literature and in the mass media. However, Hindu writers in Urdu are a dying generation and Hindi and Urdu have increasingly become subjectively separate languagues identified with different religious communities.
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Two forms of the same language, Nagarai Hindi and Persianized Hindi (Urdu) had identical grammar, shared common words and roots, and employed different scripts.
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Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language.
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Hence Urdu and High-Hindi are really the same language ; they have an identical grammar and differ merely in the vocabulary, the former using as many foreign words, the latter as few as possible.
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On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. Farhang-e-Asafiya is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It was compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that it draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as Farsi, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Farsi.
- ^ a b Dalmia, Vasudha (31 July 2017). Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories. SUNY Press. p. 310. ISBN 9781438468075.
On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 percent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112–13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in Urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.
- ^ a b c Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 27 March 2018.
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Urdu nouns and adjective can have a variety of origins, such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Pushtu and even Portuguese, but ninety-nine per cent of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit/Prakrit. So it is an Indo-Aryan language which is a branch of Indo-Iranian family, which in turn is a branch of Indo-European family of languages. According to Dr Gian Chand Jain, Indo-Aryan languages had three phases of evolution beginning around 1,500 BC and passing through the stages of Vedic Sanskrit, classical Sanskrit and Pali. They developed into Prakrit and Apbhransh, which served as the basis for the formation of later local dialects.
- ^ India Perspectives, Volume 8. PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs. 1995. p. 23.
All verbs in Urdu are of Sanskrit origin. According to lexicographers, only about 25 percent words in Urdu diction have Persian or Arabic origin.
- ^ Versteegh, Kees; Versteegh, C. H. M. (1997). The Arabic Language. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231111522.
... of the Qufdn; many Arabic loanwords in the indigenous languages, as in Urdu and Indonesian, were introduced mainly through the medium of Persian.
- ^ Khan, Iqtidar Husain (1989). Studies in Contrastive Analysis. The Department of Linguistics of Aligarh Muslim University. p. 5.
It is estimated that almost 25% of the Urdu vocabulary consists of words which are of Persian and Arabic origin.
- ^ American Universities Field Staff (1966). Reports Service: South Asia series. American Universities Field Staff. p. 43.
The Urdu vocabulary is about 30% Persian.
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Professor Gopi Chand Narang points out that the trends towards Persianization in Urdu is not a new phenomenon. It started with the Delhi school of poets in the eighteenth century in the name of standardization (meyar-bandi). It further tilted towards Arabo-Persian influences, writes Narang, with the rise of Iqbal. 'The diction of Faiz Ahmad Faiz who came into prominence after the death of Iqbal is also marked by Persianization; so it is the diction of N.M. Rashid, who popularised free verse in Urdu poetry. Rashid's language is clearly marked by fresh Iranian influences as compared to another trend-setter, Meeraji. Meeraji is on the other extreme because he used Hindized Urdu.'
- ^ Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). Hindi and Urdu Since 1800: A Common Reader. Heritage Publishers. ISBN 9788170261629.
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- ^ Gangan, Surendra (30 November 2011). "In Pakistan, Hindi flows smoothly into Urdu". DNA India. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
That Bollywood and Hindi television daily soaps are a hit in Pakistan is no news. So, it's hardly surprising that the Urdu-speaking population picks up and uses Hindi, even the tapori lingo, in its everyday interaction. "The trend became popular a few years ago after Hindi films were officially allowed to be released in Pakistan," said Rafia Taj, head of the mass communication department, University of Karachi. "I don't think it's a threat to our language, as it is bound to happen in the globalisation era. It is anytime better than the attack of western slangs on our language," she added.
- ^ Clyne, Michael (24 May 2012). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-088814-0.
- ^ Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (26 July 2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. p. 294. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
- ^ Paul Teyssier: História da Língua Portuguesa, S. 94. Lisbon 1987
- ^ Peter Austin (1 September 2008). One thousand languages: living, endangered, and lost. University of California Press. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-0-520-25560-9. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ InpaperMagazine (13 November 2011). "Language: Urdu and the borrowed words". dawn.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 29 March 2015.
- ^ John R. Perry, "Lexical Areas and Semantic Fields of Arabic" in Éva Ágnes Csató, Eva Agnes Csato, Bo Isaksson, Carina Jahani, Linguistic convergence and areal diffusion: case studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic, Routledge, 2005. pg 97: "It is generally understood that the bulk of the Arabic vocabulary in the central, contiguous Iranian, Turkic and Indic languages was originally borrowed into literary Persian between the ninth and thirteenth centuries"
- ^ María Isabel Maldonado García; Mustafa Yapici (2014). "Common Vocabulary in Urdu and Turkish Language: A Case of Historical Onomasiology" (PDF). Journal of Pakistan Vision. 15 (1): 193–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2015.
- ^ Colin P. Masica, The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge Language Surveys (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). 466,
- ^ Khan, Sajjad, Waqas Anwar, Usama Bajwa, and Xuan Wang. "Template Based Affix Stemmer for a Morphologically Rich Language." International Arab Journal of Information Technology (IAJIT) 12, no. 2 (2015).
- ^ Aijazuddin Ahmad (2009). Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 120–. ISBN 978-81-8069-568-1.
The very word Urdu came into being as the original Lashkari dialect, in other words, the language of the army.
- ^ "About Urdu". Afroz Taj (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
- ^ India: The Last Handwritten Newspaper in the World · Global Voices Archived 1 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Globalvoices.org (26 March 2012). Retrieved on 12 July 2013.
- ^ Pandey, Anshuman (13 December 2007). "Proposal to Encode the Kaithi Script in ISO/IEC 10646" (PDF). Unicode. Retrieved 16 October 2020.
Kaithi was used for writing Urdu in the law courts of Bihar when it replaced Perso-Arabic as the official script during the 1880s. The majority of extant legal documents from Bihar from the British period are in Urdu written in Kaithi. There is a substantial number of such manuscripts, specimens of which are given in Figure 21, Figure 22, and Figure 23.
- ^ King, Christopher Rolland (1999). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Oxford University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-19-565112-6.
- ^ Ashraf, Ali (1982). The Muslim Elite. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 80.
The court language however was Urdu in 'Kaithi' script in spite of the use of English as the official language.
- ^ Varma, K. K.; Lal, Manohar (1997). Social Realities in Bihar. Novelty & Company. p. 347.
The language of learning and administration in Bihar before the East India Company was Persian, and later it was replaced by English. The court language, however, continued to be Urdu written in Kaithi script.
- ^ ghose, sagarika. "Urdu Bharti: नौकरी के लिए भटक रहे हैं 4 हजार उर्दू शिक्षक, कोर्ट कोर्ट खेल रही है सरकार." Navbharat Times (in Hindi). Retrieved 13 September 2020.
- ^ Ahmad, Rizwan (2011). "Urdu in Devanagari: Shifting orthographic practices and Muslim identity in Delhi". Language in Society. Cambridge University Press. 40 (3): 259–284. doi:10.1017/S0047404511000182. hdl:10576/10736. JSTOR 23011824. S2CID 55975387.
- ^ "বিদ্রোহী কবি নজরুল ; একটি বুলেট কিংবা কবিতার উপাখ্যান" (in Bengali). 1 June 2014.
- ^ Islam, Rafiqul (1969). নজরুল নির্দেশিকা (in Bengali).
- ^ Khan, Azahar Uddin (1956). বাংলা সাহিত্যে নজরুল [Nazrul in Bengali literature] (in Bengali).
- ^ Muhammad Shahabuddin Sabu; Nazir Uddin, eds. (2021). বাংলা-ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী ডিক্সেনারি (বাংলা - ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী অভিধান) (in Bengali). Bangla Bazar, Dhaka: Takiya Mohammad Publications.
- ^ "বাংলা-ঢাকাইয়া সোব্বাসী অভিধানের মোড়ক উন্মোচন" [Unveiling of 'Bangla-Dhakaiya Sobbasi' Dictionary]. Samakal (in Bengali). 17 January 2021.
Further reading
- Henry Blochmann (1877). English and Urdu dictionary, romanized (8 ed.). CALCUTTA: Printed at the Baptist mission press for the Calcutta school-book society. p. 215. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan
- John Dowson (1908). A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language (3 ed.). LONDON: K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., ltd. p. 264. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the University of Michigan
- John Dowson (1872). A grammar of the Urdū or Hindūstānī language. LONDON: Trübner & Co. p. 264. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
- John Thompson Platts (1874). A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language. LONDON: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
- John Thompson Platts (1892). A grammar of the Hindūstānī or Urdū language. LONDON: W.H. Allen. p. 399. Retrieved 6 July 2011.the New York Public Library
- John Thompson Platts (1884). A dictionary of Urdū, classical Hindī, and English (reprint ed.). LONDON: H. Milford. p. 1259. Retrieved 6 July 2011.Oxford University
- Alam, Muzaffar. 1998. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In Modern Asian Studies, vol. 32, no. 2. (May 1998), pp. 317–349.
- Asher, R. E. (Ed.). 1994. The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-035943-4.
- Azad, Muhammad Husain. 2001 [1907]. Aab-e hayat (Lahore: Naval Kishor Gais Printing Works) 1907 [in Urdu]; (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 2001. [In English translation]
- Azim, Anwar. 1975. Urdu a victim of cultural genocide. In Z. Imam (Ed.), Muslims in India (p. 259).
- Bhatia, Tej K. 1996. Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners. London, UK & New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11087-4 (Book), 0415110882 (Cassettes), 0415110890 (Book & Cassette Course)
- Bhatia, Tej K. and Koul Ashok. 2000. "Colloquial Urdu: The Complete Course for Beginners." London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13540-0 (Book); ISBN 0-415-13541-9 (cassette); ISBN 0-415-13542-7 (book and casseettes course)
- Chatterji, Suniti K. 1960. Indo-Aryan and Hindi (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
- Dua, Hans R. 1992. "Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language". In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-012855-1.
- Dua, Hans R. 1994a. Hindustani. In Asher, 1994; pp. 1554.
- Dua, Hans R. 1994b. Urdu. In Asher, 1994; pp. 4863–4864.
- Durrani, Attash, Dr. 2008. Pakistani Urdu.Islamabad: National Language Authority, Pakistan.
- Gumperz, J.J. (1982). "Discourse Strategies". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cite journal requires
|journal=
(help) - Hassan, Nazir and Omkar N. Koul 1980. Urdu Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
- Syed Maqsud Jamil (16 June 2006). "The Literary Heritage of Urdu". Daily Star.
- Kelkar, A. R. 1968. Studies in Hindi-Urdu: Introduction and word phonology. Poona: Deccan College.
- Khan, M. H. 1969. Urdu. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 5). The Hague: Mouton.
- King, Christopher R. (1994). One Language, Two Scripts: The Hindi Movement in Nineteenth Century North India. Bombay: Oxford University Press.
- Koul, Ashok K. (2008). Urdu Script and Vocabulary. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies.
- Koul, Omkar N. (1994). Hindi Phonetic Reader. Delhi: Indian Institute of Language Studies.
- Koul, Omkar N. (2008). Modern Hindi Grammar (PDF). Springfield: Dunwoody Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
- Narang, G. C.; Becker, D. A. (1971). "Aspiration and nasalization in the generative phonology of Hindi-Urdu". Language. 47 (3): 646–767. doi:10.2307/412381. JSTOR 412381.
- Ohala, M. 1972. Topics in Hindi-Urdu phonology. (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles).
- "A Desertful of Roses", a site about Ghalib's Urdu ghazals by Dr. Frances W. Pritchett, Professor of Modern Indic Languages at Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
- Phukan, Shantanu (2000). "The Rustic Beloved: Ecology of Hindi in a Persianate World". The Annual of Urdu Studies. 15 (5): 1–30. hdl:1793/18139.
- The Comparative study of Urdu and Khowar. Badshah Munir Bukhari National Language Authority Pakistan 2003.
- Rai, Amrit. 1984. A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-561643-X.
- Snell, Rupert Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners. Lincolnwood, IL: NTC
- King, Robert D. (2001). "The poisonous potency of script: Hindi and Urdu" (PDF). International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 2001 (150): 43–59. doi:10.1515/ijsl.2001.035.
- Ramkrishna Mukherjee (2018). Understanding Social Dynamics in South Asia: Essays in Memory of Ramkrishna Mukherjee. Springer. pp. 221–. ISBN 9789811303876.
- Economic and Political Weekly. Sameeksha Trust. 1996.
External links
- Urdu at Curlie
- Directory of Urdu websites.
- Type in Urdu
- Urdu Scholarship-Maldonado Garcia
- Urdu Digital Library
- ترتیب وڈیزائننگ ایم پی خاؿ اردولشکری زبان
- The Urdu Latin alphabet by Adnaan Mahmood
- Haruf-e-Tana by Punya Pranava Pasumarty
- The Urdu Latin alphabet by Karan patel
- Urdu
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- Fusional languages
- Standard languages
- Indo-Aryan languages
- Official languages of India
- Languages of Pakistan
- Languages of Gujarat
- Languages of Maharashtra
- Languages of Bihar
- Languages of Jammu and Kashmir
- Languages of Jharkhand
- Languages of Uttar Pradesh
- Languages of Telangana
- Languages of West Bengal
- Subject–object–verb languages
- Languages of Karnataka