ロシア

座標：60° N90°E / 60°N 90°E / 60; 90

ロシア連邦 РоссийскаяФедерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya
国旗 紋章
国歌：  ГосударственныйгимнРоссийскойФедерацииGosudarstvennygimnRossiyskoy Federatsii （「ロシア連邦国歌」）
認識されていない領域が薄緑色で表示されている地球上のロシア。[NS]
資本 そして最大の都市	モスクワ55°45′N37 °37′E  / 55.750°N 37.617°E / 55.750; 37.617
公用語 と国語	ロシア語[2]
認識されている 国語	ロシアの言語を見る
民族グループ （2010）[3]	80.9％ロシア語 3.9％タタール 1.4％ウクライナ語 1.1％バシキール人 1.0％チュヴァシ 1.0％チェチェン 10.7％その他
宗教 （2017）[4]	73％のキリスト教 —70％ロシア正教会 —3％その他のクリスチャン 15％無宗教 10％イスラム 2％その他
住民の呼称	ロシア
政府	連邦 半大統領 制憲共和制[5]
• 社長	ウラジーミル・プーチン
• 首相	ミハイル・ミシュスティン
• のスピーカー 連邦院	ワレンチナ・マトビエンコ
• のスピーカー 下院	ヴャチェスラフヴォロディン
• 首席判事	ヴャチェスラフ・レベデフ
立法府	連邦議会
• アッパーハウス	フェデレーションカウンシル
• 衆議院	下院
形成
•  Rurikidsが 設立されました	862
• キエフ大公国	879
• モスクワ大公国	1283
• ロシアツァーリ国	1547年1月16日
• ロシア帝国	1721年11月2日
• 君主制廃止	1917年3月15日
• ソビエト連邦	1922年12月30日
• ロシア連邦	1991年12月12日
• 現在の憲法	1993年12月12日
• 最後の政体が 認められた	2014年3月18日
• 最後の修正	2020年7月4日
領域
• 合計	17,098,246 km 2（6,601,670平方マイル）[6] 17,125,191 km2（クリミアを含む）[7]（1位）
• 水 （％）	13 [8] （沼地を含む）
人口
•2021年の見積もり	146,171,015 （クリミアを含む）[9] 143,759,445 （クリミアを除く）[9] （9日）
• 密度	8.4 / km 2（21.8 / sq mi）（181st）
GDP  （PPP）	2021年の見積もり
• 合計	4,328兆ドル[10]（6日）
• 一人あたり	29,485ドル[10]（50日）
GDP  （名目）	2021年の見積もり
• 合計	1.710兆ドル[10]（11日）
• 一人あたり	11,654ドル[10]（59日）
ジニ （2018）	37.5 [11] ミディアム ・ 98位
HDI  （2019）	0.824 [12] 非常に高い ・ 52位
通貨	ロシアルーブル（₽）（RUB）
タイムゾーン	UTC + 2〜 + 12
運転側	右
市外局番	+7
ISO3166コード	RU
インターネットTLD	.ru .рф

ロシア（ロシア語：Россия、Rossiya、ロシア語の発音：  [rɐˈsʲijə]）、またはロシア連邦、^[b]は、東ヨーロッパと北アジアにまたがる国です。それは世界最大の国であり、 1700万平方キロメートル（6.6 × 10 ⁶ 平方マイル）以上をカバーし、地球の人が住む土地面積の8分の1以上を網羅しています。ロシアは11のタイムゾーンにまたがっており、16の主権国家があり、世界で最も国境があります。^[NS]^人口は1億4,620万人です。そして、で最も人口の多い国で、ヨーロッパで、そして第9最も人口の多い国で、世界では。首都モスクワはヨーロッパ最大の都市であり、サンクトペテルブルクは国内で2番目に大きな都市であり文化の中心地です。ロシア人はスラブとヨーロッパの最大の国です。彼らはロシア語、最も話されているスラブ語、そしてヨーロッパで最も話されている母国語を話します。

東スラヴ人は、第三及び第八世紀ADの間にヨーロッパで認識可能なグループとして登場しました。中世の状態ルーシは、 9世紀に生まれました。 988年には、ビザンチン帝国の正教会を採用し、次の千年紀のロシア文化を定義するビザンチン文化とスラブ文化の統合を開始しました。 Rusは、15世紀にモスクワ大公国によって最終的に再統一されるまで、最終的に崩壊しました。 18世紀までに、国は征服、併合、探検を通じて大幅に拡大し、3番目に大きな帝国であるロシア帝国になりました。歴史の中で。続いてロシア革命、ロシアSFSRは最大となった主要な構成要素のソ連、世界初の憲法社会主義国家だった、一政党制をその存在のほとんど全域。ソビエト連邦は、第二次世界大戦での連合国の勝利において決定的な役割を果たし、冷戦中に超大国および米国のライバルとして浮上しました。ソ連時代には、いくつかの見た最も重要な技術の成果の世界を含む20世紀のを、最初の人工衛星と宇宙での最初の人間の打ち上げ。1991年にソビエト連邦が解散した後、ロシアのSFSRはロシア連邦として再建されました。1993年の憲政上の危機の余波で、新しい憲法が採択され、それ以来、ロシアは連邦 半大統領制共和国として統治されてきました。ウラジーミルプチンは2000年以来、ロシアの政治システムを支配しており、彼の政府は権威主義、多数の人権侵害、および汚職で非難されてきました。

ロシアはある偉大な力、そして考えられている潜在的な超大国。国民皆保険制度と無料の大学教育を備えた人間開発指数で非常に高いランクにあります。ロシアの経済は、名目GDPで世界第11位、購買力平価で第6位です。それは認められた核兵器国であり、世界最大の核兵器の備蓄を有し、世界で2番目に強力な軍事力、そして4番目に高い軍事費を持っています。 。ロシアの豊富な鉱物およびエネルギー資源は世界最大であり、世界有数の石油および天然ガスの生産国の1つです。それは永久的なメンバーの国連安全保障理事会のメンバーG20、SCO、欧州評議会、APEC、OSCE、IIBおよびWTO、などの主要メンバーCIS、CSTO、およびEAEU。ロシアはまた、ユネスコの9番目に多い数の本拠地です 世界遺産。

語源

ロシアという名前は、主に東スラヴ人が住む中世の州、ルーシ族に由来しています。^[13]しかし、後の歴史で固有名詞がより目立つようになり、この国は通常、住民から「ロシアの土地」と訳される「Русскаяземля」（Russkayazemlya）と呼ばれていました。^[14]この状態をそれから派生した他の状態と区別するために、現代の歴史学ではキエフ大公国と呼ばれています。名前ルーシ「自体は中世初期から来ている人ルーシ」、向こうから移住した北欧の商人と戦士のグループバルト海とノヴゴロドを中心とした州を設立し、後にキエフ大公国となった。^[15]

中世ラテン名ルーシのバージョンはでしたルテニア東スラブとするためのいくつかの名称の一つとして使用された、東方正教会の地域、及び一般ルーシの土地の指定として。^[16]国の現在の名前、Россия（のRossiyaが）、から来ているビザンチンギリシャ語ルーシの指定、Ρωσσία Rossíaは（Ρωσίαを-spelled Rosiaのは、 発音 [Rosiaのを]で）現代ギリシャ語。^[17]

ロシアの市民を指す標準的な方法は、英語で「ロシア人」です。^[18]ロシア語には2つの単語があり、一般に「ロシア人」として英語に翻訳されます。1つは「русские」（russkiye）で、ほとんどの場合ロシア人を指します。もう1つは「россияне」（rossiyane）です。民族に関係なく、ロシアの市民に。^[19]

歴史

初期の歴史

4万年以上前の最初の現代人の骨の1つは、ロシア南部のドン川のほとりにあるコステンキとボルシェヴォの村で発見されました。^{[20] [21]}

遊牧民は、銅器時代に始まったポントス・カスピ海草原で発達しました。^[23]これらの草原の文明の残骸は、以下のような場所で発見されたIpatovo、^[23] Sintashta、^[24] Arkaim、^[25]及びPazyryk、^[26]の最古の痕跡負担軍馬を。^[24]で古典古代、ポントス・カスピ草原のように知られていたスキタイ。^[27]

紀元前8世紀後半、古代ギリシャの商人たちは、タナイスとファナゴリアの貿易大使館に古典文明をもたらしました。^[28]

西暦3世紀から4世紀にかけて、ゴシック様式のオイウム王国が南ロシアに存在し、後にフン族に侵略されました。^[13]西暦3世紀から6世紀の間に、ギリシャの植民地を継承したヘレニズムの政体であったボスポロス王国^[29]も、フン族やユーラシアのアヴァール族などの好戦的な部族が率いる遊牧民の侵略に圧倒されました。^[30]チュルク系のハザールは、10世紀までカスピ海と黒海の間のヴォルガ川下流域の草原を支配していた。^[31]

現代の祖先ロシア人はあるスラヴ部族その元のホームの樹木が茂った区域となっているために、一部の学者によって考えられている、ピンスク沼地、最大級の湿地ヨーロッパインチ^[32]東スラヴ人は、キエフから現在のスーズダリとムーロムに向かって移動する波と、ポラツクからノヴゴロドとロストフに向かって移動する波の2つの波で徐々に西ロシアに定住した。^[31] 7世紀以降、東スラヴ人はロシア西部の人口の大部分を占めていた^[31]。そしてゆっくりと、しかし平和ネイティブ同化Finno-Ugric人々など、Merya、^[33] Muromians、^[34]及びMeshcheraを。^[35]

キエフ大公国

9世紀に最初の東スラブ国家が設立されたのは、バルト海東部から黒海とカスピ海に伸びる水路に沿って冒険したヴァイキングであるヴァリャーグ人の到着と一致していました。^[36]によると原初年代記からVarangianルーシ族の名前、リューリクは、定規の選出されたノヴゴロド862に^[13]彼の後継者、882でオレグは南進出と征服キエフ、^[37]以前にされていましたハザールに敬意を表して。^[31]リューリクの息子イゴールとイゴールの息子スヴャトスラフその後、すべてのローカル征服東スラヴキエフルールに部族は、破壊されたカザールKhaganate、 ^[38]とするいくつかの軍事遠征を開始しましたビザンチンとペルシャ。 ^{[39] [40]}

10世紀から11世紀にかけて、キエフ大公国はヨーロッパで最大かつ最も繁栄した州の1つになりました。^[41]ウラジーミル大王（980-1015）とその息子ヤロスラフ1世（1019-1054）の治世は、ビザンチウムから正教会のキリスト教が受け入れられ、最初の東スラヴ人が誕生したキエフの黄金時代を構成している。書かれた法典、RusskayaPravda。^[42]

11世紀と12世紀には、キプチャク族やペチェネグ族などの遊牧民のチュルク族による絶え間ない侵入により、東スラブ人の人口が北部のより安全で森林の多い地域、特にザレシエとして知られる地域に大規模に移住しました。^[43]

封建制と地方分権化の時代が到来し、キエフ大公国を統治したリューリク朝のメンバー間の絶え間ない戦いが特徴でした。キエフの支配は衰退し、北東部のウラジミール・スズダル、北西部のノヴゴロド共和国、南西部のガリシア・ヴォルヒニアの利益になりました。^[13]

最終的にキエフ大公国は崩壊し、最後の打撃は1237 – 40年のモンゴルの侵略であり、その結果キエフが破壊され、ロシアの人口の約半分が死亡した。^[44]後にタタール人として知られる侵略者は、ロシアの公国を略奪し、2世紀以上にわたってロシアの南部と中央部を支配した黄金の大群の州を形成した。^[45]

ガリシア・ヴォルヒニアは最終的にポーランド王国に同化され、ノヴゴロド共和国とモンゴルが支配するウラジーミル・スズダルは、キエフ周辺の2つの地域であり、現代ロシア国家の基盤を確立しました。^[42]ノヴゴロド共和国はモンゴルの占領を免れ、プスコフと共にモンゴルのくびきの時代にある程度の自治権を保持した。彼らは国の残りの部分に影響を与えた残虐行為を大部分免れた。アレクサンドル・ネフスキー王子が率いるノヴゴロディアンは、1240年のネヴァ川の戦いで侵略したスウェーデン人を撃退し^[46]、ゲルマン人の十字軍も撃退した。1242年の氷上の戦い。^[47]

モスクワ大公国

キエフ大公国の破壊後に最終的に発生する最も強力な国家は、当初はウラジーミル・スズダルの一部であったモスクワ大公国でした。^[48]まだモンゴル・タタール人の領土の下にあり、彼らの共感をもって、モスクワは14世紀初頭に中央ルーシ族でその影響力を主張し始め、徐々にルーシ族の土地の統一の過程で主導的な力となった。そしてロシアの拡大。^[49]モスクワの最後のライバルであるノヴゴロド共和国は、毛皮貿易の中心地であり、ハンザ同盟の最東端の港として栄えた。^[50]

モンゴル・タタール人の襲撃が頻繁に行われ、時代は依然として困難でした。農業は小氷期の始まりに苦しんでいました。他のヨーロッパ諸国のように、ペストは、 1350と1490の間で頻繁に発生した^[51]しかし、低人口密度とのより良い衛生-広範な実施するため番屋、疫病から湿り蒸気浴死亡率ではなかったようで西ヨーロッパのように深刻で^[52]、人口は1500年までに回復した。^[51]

モスクワのドミトリー・ドンスコイ王子が率い、ロシア正教会の支援を受けて、ロシア公国の統一軍は、1380年のクリコヴォの戦いでモンゴル・タタール人に画期的な敗北をもたらした。^[53]モスクワは、以前を含む周辺の公国を徐々に吸収した。TverやNovgorodなどの強力なライバル。^[48]

イヴァン3世（「大王」）はついに黄金の大群の支配を放棄し、モスクワの支配下にある中央および北部のルス全体を統合し、「すべてのルスの大公」という称号を獲得した最初のロシアの支配者でした。 。^[48] 1453年のコンスタンティノープル陥落後、モスクワは東ローマ帝国の遺産の継承を主張した。^[48]イヴァン3世は、最後のビザンチン帝国皇帝コンスタンティノス11世の姪であるソフィア・パレオロジナと結婚し、ビザンチンの双頭の鷲を自分のものにし、最終的にはロシアの国章にした。^[54]

ロシアの皇帝

開発では第三のローマのアイデア、大公イヴァンIV（「ひどい」）が正式に最初に戴冠した皇帝1547ザ・ロシアのを皇帝は、 公布の法律の新しいコード（1550年のSudebnikを最初のロシア封建的な代表機関を設立し、） （ゼムスキーソボル）、聖職者の影響を抑制し、地方の地方の自己管理を導入しました。^[55]

彼の長い統治の間に、イヴァン4世は、ヴォルガ川沿いのカザンとアストラハン、およびシベリア南西部のシベリアの汗国の3つのタタールの汗国（崩壊した黄金の大群の一部）を併合することによって、すでに大きなロシアの領土をほぼ2倍にしました。^[55]したがって、16世紀の終わりまでに、ロシアはウラル山脈の東、つまりヨーロッパの東、そしてアジアに拡大し、大陸横断国家に変貌した。^[56]

しかし、ツァーリ国は、バルト海沿岸と海上貿易へのアクセスをめぐるポーランド、リトアニア、スウェーデン、デンマーク、ノルウェーの連立に対する長く失敗したリヴォニア戦争によって弱体化した。^[57]同時に、黄金の大群の後継者であるクリミア・ハン国のタタール人は、ロシア南部を襲撃し続けた。^[58]ヴォルガの汗国を回復するために、クリミアとそのオスマン帝国の同盟国は中央ロシアに侵入し、1571年にモスクワの一部を焼き払うことさえできた。^[55]しかし翌年、大規模な侵略軍はモロディの戦いでロシア人に完全に敗北し、オスマン帝国とクリミア半島のロシアへの拡大の脅威を永久に排除しました。^[59]しかしながら、クリミアの奴隷狩りは17世紀後半まで止まらなかったが、グレートアバティスラインのような南ロシアを横切る新しい要塞ラインの建設は、侵入にアクセスできるエリアを絶えず狭めた。^[60]

イワンの息子たちの死は、1598年に古代リューリク朝の終わりを告げ、1601〜03年の飢饉と相まって、内戦、偽装者の支配、および動乱時代の17世紀初頭の外国の介入につながりました。世紀。^[57]ポーランド・リトアニア共和国はさえ、モスクワの中に延びる、ロシアの部分を占めていました。^[48] 1612年、ポーランド人は2人の国民的英雄、商人クジマ・ミーニンとプリンス・ドミトリー・ポジャースキーに率いられたロシアの志願兵団によって撤退を余​​儀なくされた。^[61]ロマノフ王朝ゼムスキーソボルの決定により1613年に王位に就き、国は危機から徐々に回復し始めました。^[62]

ロシアは、コサックの時代である17世紀まで領土の成長を続けました。^[48] 1648年、ウクライナの農民は、ポーランドの支配下で苦しんでいた社会的および宗教的抑圧に反応して、フメリニツキー蜂起の際にポーランド-リトアニアに対する反乱でザポロジアンコサックに加わった。^[63] 1654年、ウクライナの指導者ボフダン・フメリニツキーは、ウクライナをロシア皇帝アレクセイ1世の保護下に置くことを申し出た。^[64]アレクセイがこの申し出を受け入れたことで、別のロシア・ポーランド戦争が起こった。最後に、ウクライナはドニエプル川に沿って分割されました、西部、右岸ウクライナをポーランドの支配下に置き、東部（左岸ウクライナとキエフ）をロシアの支配下に置く。^[48]その後、1670年から1671年に、ドン・コサックが率いるStenkaラージンの主要な蜂起を開始ヴォルガ地方を、しかし皇帝の軍隊が反乱軍を破りに成功しました。^[65]

東部では、シベリアの広大な領土の急速なロシアの探検と植民地化は、貴重な毛皮と象牙を探しているコサックによって主に主導されました。^[48] ロシアの探検家は主にシベリアの河川交通に沿って東に押し出し、17世紀半ばまでに、ロシアの入植地が東シベリア、チュクチ半島、アムール川沿い、太平洋の海岸にあった。^[56] 1648年、2人のロシア人探検家であるフェドットポポフとセミョンデジニョフがベーリング海峡を発見し、ヨーロッパ人として初めて北アメリカに航海した。^[66]

ロシア帝国

ピョートル大帝の下で、ロシアは1721年に帝国を宣言し、ヨーロッパの大国の1つになりました。1682年から1725年までの判決で、ピーターは大北方戦争（1700-1721）でスウェーデンを破り、西カレリアとイングリア（トラブルの時期にロシアが失った2つの地域）、およびエストニア行政区とリヴォニアを譲歩させました。、ロシアの海と海の貿易へのアクセスを確保する。1703年、バルト海で、ピーターはロシアの新しい首都としてサンクトペテルブルクを設立しました。彼の統治を通じて、抜本的な改革が行われ、それはロシアに重要な西ヨーロッパの文化的影響をもたらしました。^[67]

1741年から62年のピョートル1世の娘エリザベスの治世は、七年戦争（1756年から63年）へのロシアの参加を見ました。この紛争の間、ロシアは東プロイセンを併合し、ベルリンの門にさえ到達しました。しかし、エリザベスの死後、これらの征服はすべて、プロイセンのロシアのピョートル3世によってプロイセン王国に返還されました。^[67]

1762年から96年に統治したエカチェリーナ2世（「大王」）は、ロシアの啓蒙時代を主宰しました。彼女はポーランド・リトアニア連邦に対するロシアの政治的支配を拡大し、ポーランド分割中にその領土のほとんどをロシアに組み込み、ロシアのフロンティアを西に中央ヨーロッパに押し込み、ロシアをヨーロッパで最も人口の多い国にしました。南部では、オスマン帝国に対するロシアとトルコの戦争が成功した後、キャサリンはロシアの境界を黒海に進め、クリミア・ハン国を破った。勝利の結果ガージャールイランによる日露ペルシャ戦争、19世紀の前半で、ロシアはまた、大幅な領土利益作られた南コーカサスと北コーカサスを。^[67]キャサリンの後継者である息子のポールは不安定で、主に国内問題に焦点を合わせていた。彼の短い治世の後、キャサリンの戦略をを継続したアレキサンダーIさん（1801年から1825年）wrestingの フィンランド1809年にスウェーデンの弱体化、およびのからベッサラビア北米では、ロシア人がに最初のヨーロッパ人となったものの1812年にオスマン帝国からのリーチとアラスカに植民地化する。^[68]

1803年から1806年にかけて、最初のロシアの世界一周が行われ、その後、他の注目すべきロシアの海上探検航海が行われました。^[70] 1820年、ロシアの遠征隊が南極大陸を発見した。^[71]

ナポレオン戦争中、ロシアは他のさまざまなヨーロッパ帝国と同盟を結び、フランスと戦った。1812年のナポレオンの権力の頂点でのフランスのロシア侵攻はモスクワに到達しましたが、厳しい寒さのロシアの冬と相まって頑固な抵抗が侵略者の悲惨な敗北につながり、パンの95％以上が破滅的な敗北をもたらしたため、最終的には惨めに失敗しました。ヨーロッパのグランデアルメは死んだ。率いるミハイル・クトゥーゾフとバークレー・デ・トリー、ロシア帝国陸軍が国からナポレオンを追放し、ヨーロッパ全体で運転した第六次対仏大同盟、最終的に入りますパリ。アレクサンドル1世は、ナポレオン後のヨーロッパの地図を定義したウィーン会議でロシアの代表団を支配しました。^[68]

ナポレオンを西ヨーロッパに追い込んだ将校たちは、自由主義の考えをロシアに持ち帰り、1825年のデカブリストの乱の間に皇帝の権力を縮小しようとしました。ニコラス1世（1825–55）の保守的な統治の終わりに、天頂ヨーロッパにおけるロシアの権力と影響力の時代は、クリミア戦争での敗北によって崩壊しました。^[68] 1847年から1851年の間に、コレラが原因で全国で約100万人が死亡した。^[72]

ニコラスの後継者であるアレクサンドル2世（1855〜81年）は、1861年の農奴解放令など、国全体で重要な変更を制定しました。これらの改革は工業化に拍車をかけ、1877年から78年の露土戦争の余波でバルカン半島の多くをオスマン帝国の支配から解放したロシア帝国陸軍を近代化しました。 19世紀から20世紀初頭にかけて、ロシアとイギリスは、衰退するオスマン帝国、ガージャール朝、清王朝によって残された権力の空白を埋めるために戦いました。アジアの土地をめぐる2つの主要なヨーロッパ帝国間のこの競争は、「グレートゲーム」として知られるようになりました。^[73]

19世紀後半には、ロシアでさまざまな社会主義運動が台頭しました。アレクサンドル2世は、1881年に革命的なテロリストによって殺害され、息子のアレクサンドル3世（1881〜94年）の治世は、 自由主義的ではありませんでしたが、より平和的でした。最後のロシア皇帝ニコライ2世（1894〜 1917年）は、日露戦争の失敗と血の日曜日事件として知られるデモ事件によって引き起こされた1905年のロシア革命の出来事を防ぐことができませんでした。蜂起は鎮圧されたが、政府は言論と集会の自由を認めることを含む主要な改革（1906年のロシア憲法）を譲歩することを余儀なくされた。、政党の合法化、および選出された立法機関、下院の創設。^[73]

2月革命とロシア共和国

1914年、ロシアは、入力された第一次世界大戦のに応じて、オーストリア、ハンガリー、ロシアの同盟国との戦争のの宣言セルビア、^[74]とそのから隔離しながら、複数の前線渡って戦った三国協商の同盟国。^[75] 1916年、ロシア帝国陸軍のブルシーロフ攻勢はオーストリア・ハンガリー軍をほぼ完全に破壊した。^[76]しかしながら、政権に対する既存の国民の不信は、戦争のコストの上昇、高い死傷者、そして腐敗と反逆の噂によって深まった。これらすべてがロシア革命の風土を形成しました1917年の2つの主要な行為で実行されます。^[77]

2月革命は強制ニコライ2世の退位します。彼と彼の家族は投獄され、後にロシア内戦中にエカテリンブルクで処刑されました。^[78]君主制は、臨時政府を宣言した政党の不安定な連立に取って代わられた。^[79] 1917年9月1日（14）、臨時政府の命令により、ロシア共和国が宣言された。^[80] 1918年1月6日（19）、ロシア憲法制定議会はロシアを民主的な連邦共和国と宣言した（したがって暫定政府の決定を批准した）。^[77]翌日、制憲議会は全ロシア中央執行委員会によって解散されました。^[77]

ロシア内戦

代替の社会主義組織、ペトログラード・ソビエトが共存し、ソビエトと呼ばれる民主的に選出された労働者と農民の評議会を通じて権力を行使した。新当局の統治は、国の危機を解決するのではなく悪化させただけであり、最終的には、ボルシェビキの指導者ウラジーミル・レーニンが率いる十月革命が臨時政府を打倒し、ソビエトに完全な統治権を与え、世界初の社会主義国。^[77]

十月革命後、ロシア内戦は反共産主義の 白軍と赤軍のある新しいソビエト政権の間で勃発した。ボルシェビキロシアは署名することにより、そのウクライナ、ポーランド、バルト海、そしてフィンランドの領土を失ったブレスト=リトフスク条約を持つ締結戦闘という中央パワーズ第一次世界大戦の^[77]が連合国が失敗した打ち上げの軍事介入を反共産のサポートに力。^[81]その間、ボルシェビキと白軍の両方が、それぞれ赤色テロと白色テロとして知られている、互いに強制送還と死刑執行のキャンペーンを実施しました。^[82]内戦の終わりまでに、ロシアの経済とインフラは甚大な被害を受けた。戦争中に推定700万から1200万人の死傷者があり、そのほとんどが民間人でした。^[83]何百万となった白émigrés、^[84]と1921年から1922年のロシアの飢饉500万人の犠牲者まで主張しました。^[85]

ソビエト連邦

1922年12月30日、レーニンと彼の側近は、ロシアのSFSRをウクライナ、白ロシア、およびトランスコーカサスのSFSRと統合することにより、ソビエト連邦を結成しました。やがて組合は大きくなり、15の共和国をコンパスしました。そのうち、最大の規模と人口はロシアのSFSRであり、政治的、文化的、経済的にその歴史全体で組合を支配していました。^[86]

以下のレーニンの死1924年に、トロイカは、電荷を取るように指定されました。結局 、共産党書記長のヨシフ・スターリンは、1930年代までにすべての野党派閥を抑圧し、権力を固めて国の独裁者になることに成功した。世界革命の主要な支持者であるレオン・トロツキーは、1929年にソビエト連邦から追放され、スターリンの一国社会主義の考えが公式の路線になりました。^[87]ボルシェビキ党の継続的な内部闘争は、大粛清で最高潮に達した。、1937年から38年にかけての大規模な弾圧の時期であり、その間に、元の党員や存在しない陰謀を自白することを余儀なくされた軍の指導者を含む数十万人が処刑されました。^[88]

スターリンのリーダーシップの下で、政府は計画経済、大部分が田舎の国の工業化、そしてその農業の集団化を開始しました。^[89]急速な経済的および社会的変化のこの期間中に、スターリンの支配に対する疑わしいまたは実際の反対のための多くの政治的有罪判決を含む何百万もの人々が刑事労働キャンプに送られた。数百万人がソビエト連邦の遠隔地に強制送還され、追放されました。^[90]厳しい国家政策と干ばつと相まって、国の農業の過渡的な混乱は、1932年から1933年のソビエト飢饉につながった^[91]。ロシアのSFSRで200万人から300万人が死亡した。^[92]ソビエト連邦は、短期間で大部分が農耕経済から主要な産業大国への費用のかかる転換を行った。^[93]

第二次世界大戦

1941年6月22日、ナチスドイツはモロトフ-リッベントロップ協定を破りました。そして侵入、人間の歴史の中で最大かつ最も強力な侵略力で準備不足ソ連を^[95]開く第二次世界大戦の最大の劇場を。^[96]ドイツの空腹プランがソ連の人口の大部分の飢餓と絶滅、予見した^[97]と東部総合計画は100万70以上のロシア人の排除を呼びかけ生存圏。^[98]

1941年から42年のわずか8か月で、ドイツ人捕虜の300万人近くのソビエト捕虜が殺害されました。^[99]が、ドイツ国防軍は、かなり初期の成功を持っていた、彼らの攻撃をして停止したモスクワの戦い。^[100]その後、ドイツ軍は1942年から43年の冬のスターリングラード攻防戦で最初に大敗を喫し^[101]、1943年の夏のクルスクの戦いで敗北した^[102]。もう1つのドイツ軍の失敗は包囲戦だった。レニングラードの、1941年から1944年にかけて、ドイツ軍とフィンランド軍によって都市が完全に封鎖され、飢餓と100万人以上の死者を出しましたが、降伏することはありませんでした。^[103]の下でスターリンの管理やなどの指揮官のリーダーシップゲオルギー・ジューコフとコンスタンチン・ロコソフスキーは、ソ連軍が1944年から1945年に東・中央ヨーロッパを通じてsteamrolledとベルリンを捕獲月1945年に^[104]で1945年8月、ソ連軍が 失脚中国の満州と北朝鮮からの日本人は、日本に対する連合国の勝利に貢献しています。^[105]

第二次世界大戦の1941年から45年の期間は、ロシアでは大祖国戦争として知られています。^[106]一緒に米国、英国、中国とソ連は、次のように考えられていた四大、第二次世界大戦で連合国の^[107] 、後になった四警官の基盤だった国連安全保障理事会。^[108]人類の歴史の中で最も致命的な戦闘作戦の多くを含むこの戦争中、ソビエトの民間人と軍の死者は約2600万から2700万人であり、第二次世界大戦の全犠牲者の約3分の1を占めた。^[109]ソビエト市民の完全な人口統計学的損失はさらに大きかった。^[110]ソ連経済とインフラが引き起こされる大規模な荒廃、被った1946年から1947年のソ連の飢饉を。^[111]それにもかかわらず、ソビエト連邦は余波で世界的な超大国として浮上した。^[112]

冷戦

ポツダム会談によると、第二次世界大戦後、東ドイツとオーストリアの東部を含む東ヨーロッパと中央ヨーロッパは赤軍によって占領されました。^[113]従属共産主義政府は、東側諸国の衛星国に設置された。^[114]世界第2の原子力発電所になった後、^[115]ソビエト連邦はワルシャワ条約機構の同盟を確立し^[116]、ライバルの米国およびNATOと冷戦として知られる世界的支配のための闘争に入った。^[117]

After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective rule, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's many crimes and atrocities and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labor camps.^[118] The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.^[119] At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.^[120]

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, thus starting the Space Age.^[121] Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the Vostok 1 manned spacecraft on 12 April 1961.^[122] Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation, a period when economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy and shifted the emphasis from heavy industry and weapons to light industry and consumer goods but was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.^[123] In 1979, after a Communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.^[124] The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results.^[125] Finally, the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989 due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.^[126]

From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.^[128] This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.^[129] Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest,^[130] but during its final years, it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in the money supply leading to inflation.^[131]

1991年までに、バルト諸国がソビエト連邦からの離脱を選択したため、経済的および政治的混乱が沸騰し始めました。^[132] 3月17日、国民投票が行われ、参加した市民の大多数がソビエト連邦を新たな連邦に変えることに賛成票を投じた。^[133] 1991年6月、ボリス・エリツィンはロシアのSFSRの大統領に選出されたとき、ロシア史上初の直接選出された大統領となった。^[134] 1991年8月、クーデターの試み by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.^[135] On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.^[136]

Post-Soviet Russia (1991–present)

The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression.^[137] During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken,^[138] including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy" as recommended by the United States and the International Monetary Fund.^[139]

The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of the infamous Russian oligarchs.^[140] Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.^[141] The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services; the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,^[142] and millions plunged into poverty.^[143] The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, as well as the rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.^[144]

1993年後半、エリツィンとロシア議会の間の緊張は、軍事力の後に終わった憲法上の危機で最高潮に達しました。危機の間、エリツィンは西側政府の支援を受け、100人以上が殺害されました。12月には国民投票が行われ承認され、新憲法が導入され、大統領に大きな権限が与えられた。^[145]

The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.^[147] From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.^[148] Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by separatists, claiming thousands of lives.^[d]

Russia took up the responsibility for settling the Soviet Union's external debts, even though its population made up just half of it at the time of its dissolution. In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the ruble. With a devalued ruble, the Russian government struggled to pay back its debts to internal debtors, as well as to international institutions. Despite significant attempts at economic restructuring, Russia's debt outpaced GDP growth. High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and resulted in a further GDP decline.^[153]

Putin era

On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.^[154] Yeltsin left office widely unpopular, with an approval rating as low as 2% by some estimates.^[155] Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,^[156] and suppressed the Chechen insurgency.^[157] As a result of high oil prices, a rise in foreign investment, and prudent economic and fiscal policies, the Russian economy grew significantly; dramatically improving Russia's standard of living, and increasing its influence in global politics.^[158] Putin went on to win a second presidential term in 2004.^[159]

On 2 March 2008, Dmitry Medvedev was elected president while Putin became prime minister, as the constitution barred Putin from serving a third consecutive presidential term.^[160] Putin returned to the presidency following the 2012 presidential elections,^[161] and Medvedev was appointed prime minister.^[162] This four year joint leadership by the two was coined "tandemocracy" by foreign media.^[163]

In 2014, after President Viktor Yanukovych of Ukraine fled as a result of a revolution, Putin requested and received authorisation from the Russian parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine, leading to the takeover of Crimea.^[164] Following a Crimean referendum in which separation was favoured by a large majority of voters,^[165] the Russian leadership announced the accession of Crimea into Russia, though this and the referendum that preceded it were not accepted internationally.^[166] The annexation of Crimea led to sanctions by Western countries, after which the Russian government responded with counter-sanctions against a number of countries.^[167]

In September 2015, Russia started military intervention in the Syrian Civil War in support of the Syrian government, consisting of airstrikes against militant groups of the Islamic State, al-Nusra Front (al-Qaeda in the Levant), the Army of Conquest and other rebel groups.^[168] In March 2018, Putin was elected for a fourth presidential term overall.^[169]

In January 2020, substantial amendments to the constitution were proposed,^[170] and the entire Russian government resigned,^[171] leading to Mikhail Mishustin becoming the new prime minister.^[172] It took effect in July following a national vote, allowing Putin to run for two more six-year presidential terms after his current term ends.^[173] In April 2021, Putin signed the constitutional changes into law.^[174]

Politics

Vladimir Putin President	Mikhail Mishustin Prime Minister

According to the Constitution of Russia, the country is an asymmetric federation and semi-presidential republic, wherein the president is the head of state,^[175] and the prime minister is the head of government. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a multi-party representative democracy, with the federal government composed of three branches:^[176]

• Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council, adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.
• Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, can veto legislative bills before they become law, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
• Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).^[177] Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma).

Political divisions

According to the constitution, the Russian Federation is composed of 85 federal subjects.^[e] In 1993, when the new constitution was adopted, there were 89 federal subjects listed, but some were later merged. These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council.^[178] The federal subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly. They do, however, differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.^[179]

Federal subjects	Governance
46 oblasts	The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.
22 republics	Each is nominally autonomous;[180] home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[181]
9 krais	For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.
4 autonomous okrugs	Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.
3 federal cities	Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Sevastopol).
1 autonomous oblast	The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.[182]

Federal districts

Federal subjects are grouped into eight federal districts, each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.^[183] Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' presidential envoys have the power to implement federal law and to coordinate communication between the president and the regional governors.^[184]

Foreign relations

As of 2019^[update], Russia has the fifth-largest diplomatic network in the world; maintaining diplomatic relations with 190 United Nations member states, two partially-recognized states, and three United Nations observer states; with 144 embassies.^[185] It is considered a potential superpower; and is a historical great power, an important regional power, and one of five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. Russia is a member of the G20, the Council of Europe, the OSCE, and the APEC, and takes a leading role in organisations such as the CIS, the EAEU, the CSTO, the SCO, and BRICS.

Russia maintains positive relations with other countries of SCO,^[186] EAEU,^[187] and BRICS,^[188] especially with neighbouring Belarus, which is in the Union State, a supranational confederation of the latter with Russia.^[189] Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia since centuries, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.^[190] In the 21st century, Sino-Russian relations have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically—the Treaty of Friendship, and the construction of the ESPO oil pipeline and the Power of Siberia gas pipeline formed a special relationship between the two.^[191] India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a historically strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet times.^[192]

Military

The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.^[5] As of 2019^[update], the military had around one million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fourth-largest.^[194] Additionally, there are over 2.5 million reservists, with the total number of reserve troops possibly being as high as 20 million.^[195] It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in Armed Forces.^[5]

Russia boasts the world's second-most powerful military,^[196] and is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons.^[197] More than half of the world's 13,500 nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.^[197] The country possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines,^[198] and is one of the only three states operating strategic bombers,^[199] with the world's most powerful ground force,^[200] the second-most powerful air force,^[201] and the third-most powerful navy fleet.^[202] Russia has the world's fourth-highest military expenditure, spending $65.1 billion in 2019.^[203] It has a large and fully indigenous arms industry, producing most of its own military equipment, and is the world's second-largest exporter of arms, behind only the United States.^[5]

Human rights and corruption

Russia's human rights management has been increasingly criticised by leading democracy and human rights watchdogs. In particular, such organisations as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.^[204][205] Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey.^[206] Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 124th out of 167 countries for 2020.^[207] In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 149th out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2020.^[208]

Russia was the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index for 2020; ranking 129th out of 180 countries.^[209] Corruption is perceived as a significant problem in Russia,^[210] impacting various aspects of life, including the economy,^[211] business,^[212] public administration,^[213][214] law enforcement,^[215] healthcare,^[216] and education.^[217] The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance, and attributed to general weakness of rule of law in the country.^[210]

Geography

Russia is a transcontinental country stretching vastly over both Europe and Asia.^[218] It spans the northernmost corner of Eurasia, and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, at 37,653 km (23,396 mi).^[f][220] Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, and is larger than three continents: Oceania, Europe, and Antarctica,^[221] while having the same surface area as Pluto.^[222]

Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia's westernmost part along the Baltic Sea, is about 9,000 km (5,592 mi) apart from its easternmost part, Big Diomede Island in the Bering Strait.^[223] Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southern regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at 5,642 m (18,510 ft) is the highest peak in Russia and Europe);^[5] the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at 4,750 m (15,584 ft) is the highest active volcano in Eurasia).^[224][225] The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.^[226]

Russia, alongside Canada, is one of the world's only two countries with a coast along three oceans,^[218] due to which it has links with over thirteen marginal seas.^[g][223] Russia's major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands, and Sakhalin.^[227][228] The Diomede Islands are just 3.8 km (2.4 mi) apart,^[229] and Kunashir Island is just 20 km (12.4 mi) from Hokkaido, Japan.

Russia, home to over 100,000 rivers,^[218] has one of the world's largest surface water resources, with its lakes containing approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water.^[225] Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.^[230] Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.^[218] Russia is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.^[231] The Volga, widely seen as Russia's national river due to its historical importance, is the longest river in Europe.^[232] The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.^[232]

Climate

The sheer size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate, which is prevalent in all parts of the country except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountains in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences. Most of Northwest Russia and Siberia has a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F),^[227] and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast stretch of land along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.^[234]

The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters. In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer; while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast on the Vistula Spit, and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate. The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost silvers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.^[233]

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons—winter and summer—as spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low and extremely high temperatures.^[234] The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.^[235]

Biodiversity

Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.^[236] About half of Russia's territory is forested,^[5] and it has the world's largest forest reserves,^[237] which are known as the "Lungs of Europe"; coming second only to the Amazon rainforest in the amount of carbon dioxide it absorbs.^[238]

Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000-9,000 species of algae, and 20,000-25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).^[239] Approximately 1,100 of rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.^[236]

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.^[236] They include 45 UNESCO biosphere reserves,^[240] 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.^[241] Russia still has many ecosystems which are still untouched by man—mainly in the northern taiga areas and the subarctic tundra of Siberia. Over time the country has been having improvement and application of environmental legislation, development and implementation of various federal and regional strategies and programmes, and study, inventory and protection of rare and endangered plants, animals, and other organisms, and including them in the Russian Red Data Book.^[237]

Economy

Russia has a mixed economy,^[242] with enormous natural resources, particularly oil and natural gas.^[243] It has the world's eleventh-largest economy by nominal GDP and the sixth-largest by PPP. In 2017, the large service sector contributed to 62% of the total GDP, the industrial sector 32%, and the small agricultural sector roughly 5%.^[5] Russia has a low unemployment rate of 4.5%,^[244] and a relatively low poverty rate of 12.6%.^[245] More than 70% of its population is categorised as middle class officially,^[246] which has been disputed by some experts.^[247][248] Russia foreign exchange reserves are worth $604 billion, and are world's fifth-largest.^[249] It has a labour force of roughly 70 million, which is the world's sixth-largest.^[250] Russia's large automotive industry ranks as the world's tenth-largest by production.^[251]

Russia is the world's fourteenth-largest exporter.^[252] In 2016, the oil-and-gas sector accounted for 36% of federal budget revenues.^[253] In 2019, the Natural Resources and Environment Ministry estimated the value of natural resources to 60% of the country's GDP.^[254] Russia has one of the lowest external debts among major developed countries,^[255] and ranked high among the "very easy" countries in the 2019 Ease of Doing Business Index.^[256] It has a flat tax rate of 13%, and has the world's second-most attractive personal tax system for single managers after the United Arab Emirates.^[257] However, extreme inequality of household income and wealth in the country has also been noted.^[258][259]

Infrastructure

Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the state-run Russian Railways.^[260] The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, and exceeds 87,157 km (54,157 mi).^[261] As of 2016^[update], Russia has 1,452.2 thousand km of roads,^[262] and its road density is among the world's lowest.^[263] Russia's inland waterways are the world's second-longest, and total 102,000 km (63,380 mi).^[264] Among Russia's 1,218 airports,^[265] the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow, which is also the fifth-busiest airport in Europe.

Russia's largest post is the Port of Novorossiysk in Krasnodar Krai along the Black Sea.^[267] It is the world's sole country to operate nuclear-powered icebreakers, which advance the economic exploitation of the Arctic continental shelf of Russia, and the development of sea trade through the Northern Sea Route.^[268]

Russia has been widely described as an energy superpower;^[269] as it has the world's largest natural gas reserves,^[270] the second-largest coal reserves,^[271] the eighth-largest oil reserves,^[272] and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.^[273] It is the world's leading natural gas exporter,^[274] the second-largest natural gas producer,^[275] and the second-largest oil exporter,^[276] and producer.^[277] Fossil fuels cause most of the greenhouse gas emissions by Russia.^[278] The country is the world's fourth-largest electricity producer,^[279] and the ninth-largest renewable energy producer in 2019.^[280] Russia was also the world's first country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's first nuclear power plant.^[281] In 2019, It was the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer.^[282]

Agriculture and fishery

Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.^[283] It has the world's third-largest cultivated area, at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522 sq mi). However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,^[5] and only 7.4% of its land is arable.^[284] The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies considerably more than half of the cropland.^[283] Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat,^[285] and is the largest producer of barley,^[286] buckwheat, oats,^[287] and rye,^[288] and the second-largest producer of sunflower seed.^[289] Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.^[290]

More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.^[283] Owing to its large coastline along three oceans, Russia maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets, ranking sixth in the world in tonnage of fish caught; capturing 4,773,413 tons of fish in 2018.^[291] It is also home to the world's finest caviar (the beluga), and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.^[283]

Science and technology

Russia's research and development budget is the world's ninth-highest, with an expenditure of approximately 422 billion rubles on domestic research and development.^[292] In 2019, Russia was ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications.^[293] Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to twenty-six Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.^[294]

Mikhail Lomonosov proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding the energy conservation law.^[295] Since the time of Nikolay Lobachevsky (the "Copernicus of Geometry" who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry) and a prominent tutor Pafnuty Chebyshev, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.^[296] Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.^[295] Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded with the Fields Medal.^[297] Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002.^[298] Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,^[299] while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.^[300] Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés, among them are Igor Sikorsky,^[301] and Vladimir Zworykin,^[302] while many foreign ones lived and worked in Russia for a long time, such as Leonard Euler,^[303] and Alfred Nobel.^[304] Russian discoveries and inventions include the transformer, electric filament lamp, the aircraft, the safety parachute, electrical microscope, colour photos,^[305] caterpillar tracks, track assembly, electrically powered railway wagons, videotape recorder, the helicopter, the solar cell, yogurt, the television, petrol cracking, synthetic rubber, and grain harvester.^[306]

Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency;^[308] while Russian achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration are traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics.^[309] His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was launched.^[121] In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin.^[122] Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk performed by Alexei Leonov.^[310] Vostok 6 was the first human spaceflight to carry a woman into space (Valentina Tereshkova).^[311] Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon,^[312] Sputnik 2 was the first spacecraft to carry an animal (Laika),^[313] Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon,^[314] Venera 7 was the first spacecraft to land on another planet (Venus),^[315] and Mars 3 was the first spacecraft to land on Mars.^[316] Lunokhod 1 was the first space exploration rover,^[317] and Salyut 1 was the world's first space station.^[318]

Russia is among the world's largest satellite launchers,^[319] and has completed the GLONASS satellite navigation system. It is developing its own fifth-generation jet fighter (Sukhoi Su-57),^[193] and has built the world's first floating nuclear power plant.^[320] Luna-Glob is a Russian Moon exploration programme, with its first mission scheduled to launch in October 2021 (Luna 25).^[321] To replace the ageing Soyuz, Roscosmos is also developing the Orel spacecraft, which could conduct its first crewed fight in 2025.^[322] In February 2019, it was announced that Russia is intending to conduct its first crewed mission to land on the Moon in 2031.^[323] In April 2021, Roscosmos declared that it is planning to quit the ISS, and will create its own space station with the aim of launching it into orbit by 2030.^[324] In June 2021, Roscosmos and China National Space Administration announced that they are jointly developing a lunar base, which is planned to be utilized from 2036.^[325]

Tourism

According to the World Tourism Organization, Russia was the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, in 2018, with over 24.6 million visits.^[326] Russia was ranked 39th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.^[327] According to Federal Agency for Tourism, the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.^[328] Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.^[326] In 2020, tourism accounted for about 4% of country's GDP.^[329] Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities, cruises on large rivers such as the Volga, and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.^[330] Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.^[331]

Demographics

Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated and urbanised countries,^[5] and had a population of 142.8 million according to the 2010 census,^[333] which rose to 146.2 million as of 2021.^[9] It is the most populous country in Europe,^[334] and the world's ninth-most populous country,^[335] with a population density of 9 inhabitants per square kilometre (23 per square mile).^[336]

Since the 1990s, Russia's death rate has exceeded its birth rate, which has been called by analysts as a demographic crisis.^[337] In 2018, the total fertility rate across Russia was estimated to be 1.6 children born per woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the world's lowest fertility rates.^[338] Subsequently, the nation has one of the world's oldest populations, with a median age of 40.3 years.^[5] In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years; and since the 2010s, Russia has seen increased population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates and increased immigration.^[339]

Russia is a multinational state, home to over 193 ethnic groups nationwide.^[332] In the 2010 Census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians,^[332] and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities,^[3] and roughly 85% of Russia's population was of European descent,^[3] of which the vast majority were Slavs,^[340] with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.^[341][342] According to the United Nations, Russia's immigrant population is the world's third-largest, numbering over 11.6 million;^[343] most of which are from post-Soviet states, mainly Ukrainians.^[344]

v t e Largest cities or towns in Russia Rosstat (2016[345][346]/2017)
	Rank	Name	Federal subject	Pop.	Rank	Name	Federal subject	Pop.
Moscow Saint Petersburg	1	Moscow	Moscow	[347]12,381,000	11	Rostov-na-Donu	Rostov Oblast	1,120,000	Novosibirsk Yekaterinburg
	2	Saint Petersburg	Saint Petersburg	[347]5,282,000	12	Krasnoyarsk	Krasnoyarsk Krai	[348]1,084,000
	3	Novosibirsk	Novosibirsk Oblast	[349]1,603,000	13	Perm	Perm Krai	1,042,000
	4	Yekaterinburg	Sverdlovsk Oblast	[350]1,456,000	14	Voronezh	Voronezh Oblast	1,032,000
	5	Nizhny Novgorod	Nizhny Novgorod Oblast	1,267,000	15	Volgograd	Volgograd Oblast	1,016,000
	6	Kazan	Tatarstan	[351]1,232,000	16	Krasnodar	Krasnodar Krai	[352]881,000
	7	Chelyabinsk	Chelyabinsk Oblast	[353]1,199,000	17	Saratov	Saratov Oblast	843,000
	8	Omsk	Omsk Oblast	[354]1,178,000	18	Tolyatti	Samara Oblast	[355]711,000
	9	Samara	Samara Oblast	[355]1,170,000	19	Izhevsk	Udmurtia	[356]646,000
	10	Ufa	Bashkortostan	[357]1,126,000	20	Ulyanovsk	Ulyanovsk Oblast	622,000

Language

Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.^[2] It is the most spoken native language in Europe,^[359] the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia,^[360] as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.^[360] Russian is the second-most used language on the Internet after English,^[361] and is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,^[362] as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.^[363]

Besides Russian, approximately over 100 minority languages are spoken across Russia.^[364] According to the Russian Census of 2002, 142.6 million across the country spoke Russian, 5.3 million spoke Tatar, and 1.8 million spoke Ukrainian.^[365] The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.^[366]

Religion

Russia is a secular state by constitution, and its largest religion is Christianity. It has the world's largest Orthodox population,^[368][369] and according to different sociological surveys on religious adherence, between 41% to over 80% of Russia's population adhere to the Russian Orthodox Church.^{[370][371][372]}

In 2017, a survey made by the Pew Research Center showed that 73% of Russians declared themselves as Christians—out of which 71% were Orthodox, 1% were Catholic, and 2% were Other Christians, while 15% were unaffiliated, 10% were Muslims, and 1% followed other religions.^[4] According to various reports, the proportion of Atheists in Russia is between 16% and 48% of the population.^[373]

Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia, and it is the traditional religion amongst the bulk of the peoples of the North Caucasus, and amongst some Turkic peoples scattered along the Volga-Ural region.^[374] Buddhists are home to a sizeable population in the three Siberian republics: Buryatia, Tuva, Zabaykalsky Krai, and in Kalmykia; the only region in Europe where Buddhism is the most practised religion.^[375]

Education

Russia has a free education system, which is guaranteed for all citizens by the constitution.^[377] The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, and vocational education; while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.^[378] Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. Russia has the world's highest college-level or higher graduates in terms of percentage of population, at 54%.^[379]

Pre-school education in Russia is highly developed, some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Schooling is compulsory for nine years. It starts from age 6 to 7 and leads to a basic general education certificate. An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russian students continue their education past this level. Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive: first-degree courses usually take five years.^[380] The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.^[381] There are also ten highly prestigious federal universities across the country. According to a UNESCO report in 2014, Russia is the world's sixth-leading destination for international students.^[382]

Health

Russia, by constitution, guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens,^[383] through a compulsory state health insurance program. The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees the Russian public healthcare system, and the sector employs more than two million people. Federal regions also have their own departments of health that oversee local administration. A separate private health insurance plan is needed to access private healthcare in Russia.^[384]

According to the World Bank, Russia spent 5.32% of its GDP on healthcare in 2018.^[385] It has one of the world's most female-biased sex ratios, with 0.859 males to every female.^[5] In 2019, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73.2 years (68.2 years for males and 78.0 years for females),^[386] and it had a very low infant mortality rate (5 per 1,000 live births).^[387] The principle cause of death in Russia are cardiovascular diseases.^[388] Obesity is a prevalent health issue in Russia. In 2016, 61.1% of Russian adults were overweight or obese.^[389] However, Russia's historically high alcohol consumption rate is the biggest health issue in the country,^[390] as it remains one of the world's highest, despite a stark decrease in the last decade.^[391]

Culture

Art and architecture

Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th-century, the master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.^[392] The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757, to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.^[67] In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential. The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.^[393][394] In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.^[392] The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism; represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.^[395][396] The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; and globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,^[397] Kazimir Malevich,^[398] Natalia Goncharova,^[399] Wassily Kandinsky,^[400] and Marc Chagall.^[401] Notable sculptures from the Soviet era include Vera Mukhina,^[402] Yevgeny Vuchetich, and Ernst Neizvestny.^[403]

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs,^[404] and the architecture of Kievan Rus'.^[405] Following the Christianization of Kievan Rus', for several centuries it was influenced predominantly by the Byzantine Empire.^[406] Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends into Russia.^[407] The 16th-century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches; and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.^[408] In the 17th-century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1690s. After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.^[409] The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the splendid works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers.^[410] During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.^[411] During Alexander I's rule, Empire style became the de facto architectural style, and Nicholas I opened the gate of Eclecticism to Russia. The second half of the 19th-century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style. In early 20th-century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.^[409] Prevalent styles of the late 20th-century were the Art Noveau, Constructivism,^[412] and Socialist Classicism.^[413]

Music

Until the 18th-century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.^[414] In the 19th-century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.^[414] The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff, one of the last great champions of the Romantic style of European classical music.^[415] World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov, Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Georgy Sviridov and Alfred Schnittke.^[414]

Soviet and Russian conservatories have turned out generations of world-renowned soloists. Among the best known are violinists David Oistrakh and Gidon Kremer,^[416][417] cellist Mstislav Rostropovich,^[418] pianists Vladimir Horowitz,^[419] Sviatoslav Richter,^[420] and Emil Gilels,^[421] and vocalist Galina Vishnevskaya.^[422]

During the Soviet times, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,^[423] and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.^[424] Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.^[423] The Ganelin Trio have been described by critics as the greatest ensemble of free-jazz in continental Europe.^[425] By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,^[426] DDT,^[427] and Kino.^[428][429] Pop music in Russia has continued to flourish since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u..^[430] In the recent times, Little Big, a rave band, has gained popularity in Russia and across Europe.^[431]

Literature and philosophy

Russian literature is considered to be among the world's most influential and developed.^[433] It can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed.^[434] By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov,^[435] Denis Fonvizin,^[436] Gavrila Derzhavin,^[437] and Nikolay Karamzin.^[438] From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama. Romanticism permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.^[439][440] Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev and Afanasy Fet.^[441]

The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.^[442] Then came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.^[443] Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.^[444][445] Ivan Goncharov is remembered mainly for his novel Oblomov.^[446] Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,^[447] while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.^[448] In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.^[449] Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,^[450] non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,^[451] and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.^[452][453] The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry. This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Konstantin Balmont,^[454] Marina Tsvetaeva, Vladimir Mayakovsky, and Osip Mandelshtam.^[441] It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky and Andrei Bely.^[441]

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, Socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia. Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.^[455] Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.^[456] Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel How the Steel Was Tempered has been among the most successful works of Russian literature. Various émigré writers, such as novelist Vladimir Nabokov continued to write in exile.^[457] Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the gulag camps.^[458]

Russian philosophy has been greatly influential, with philosophers such as Alexander Herzen, who is called the "father of Russian socialism";^[459] Mikhail Bakunin, who is referred to as the father of anarchism;^[460] Mikhail Bakhtin,^[461] Helena Blavatsky,^[462] Vladimir Lenin, who is one of the world's most popular revolutionaries, and developed the political ideology of Leninism;^[463] Leon Trotsky, who is the founder of Trotskyism;^[464] and Petr Chaadaev, who influenced both the Westernizers and the Slavophiles.^[465] Notable philosophers of the late 19th and 20th centuries including Vladimir Solovyov,^[466] Alexander Zinoviev,^[467] Sergei Bulgakov,^[468] Pavel Florensky,^[469] Lev Shestov,^[470] and Nikolai Berdyaev.^[471]

Cuisine

Russian cuisine has been formed by climate, cultural and religious traditions, and the vast geography of the nation; and it shares many similarities with the cuisines of its neighbouring countries.^[472] Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks.^[473] Bread is very popular in Russia.^[474] Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) is often added to soups and salads.^[475] Pirozhki, blini, and syrniki are native types of pancakes. Beef Stroganoff, Chicken Kiev, pelmeni, and shashlyk are popular meat dishes. Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat. Salads include Olivier salad, vinegret, and dressed herring.^[473]

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is Kvass,^[476] and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its creation in the nation dates back to the 14th century.^[477] The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,^[478] but beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage in Russia.^[479] Wine has become popular in Russia in the last decade,^[480][481] and the country is becoming one of the world's largest wine producers.^[479][482] Tea has also been a historically popular beverage in Russia.^[472]

Media

Russia has almost 37 thousand media outlets, 35 thousand newspapers,^[484] and over 12 thousand magazines.^[485] The largest internationally operating news agencies in Russia are TASS, RIA Novosti, and Interfax.^[486] Television is the most popular media in Russia, as 99% of the Russian population receives at least one television channel,^[484] and roughly 60% of Russians watch television on a daily basis.^[487] Popular nationwide radio stations in Russia include Radio Rossii, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, Radio Yunost, and Russkoye Radio.^[485] Some popular newspapers include Komsomolskaya Pravda, Kommersant, Novaya Gazeta, Rossiyskaya Gazeta, Izvestia, and The Moscow Times.^[485] Russia has the largest video gaming market in Europe, with over 65 million players nationwide.^[488]

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as The Battleship Potemkin.^[489] Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.^[490][491] Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.^[492] Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a huge impact on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.^[493] Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including Chapaev, The Cranes Are Flying, and Ballad of a Soldier.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema. The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai of that time were immensely popular, with many of the catchphrases still in use today.^[494][495] In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic War and Peace, which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.^[496] In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's White Sun of the Desert was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.^[497] In 2002, Russian Ark became the first feature film ever to be shot in a single take.^[498] After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses—however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.^[499]

Sports

Football is the most popular sport in Russia.^[501] The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,^[502] and reached the finals of Euro 1988.^[503] In 1956 and 1988, the Soviet Union won gold at the Olympic football tournament. Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.^[504][505] The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.^[506] Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,^[507] and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.^[508]

Ice hockey is very popular in Russia.^[509] The Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence,^[510] and the modern-day Russia men's national ice hockey team is among the most successful teams in the sport.^[509] Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.^[511] The Russian national basketball team won the EuroBasket 2007,^[512] and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams. The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix is held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park.^[513]

Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games,^[514] ranking second in an all-time Olympic Games medal count.^[515] Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics; and Russian synchronized swimming is considered to be the world's best.^[516] Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.^[517] Russia has produced a number of famous tennis players.^[518] Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.^[519] The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,^[520] and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.^[521][522]

See also

• Outline of Russia

Notes

References