コソボ戦争

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コソボ戦争
ユーゴスラビア戦争の一部[2]
Kosovo War header.jpg
左上から時計回りに:NATOの空爆により被害を受けたユーゴスラビア参謀本部Zastavaコーラルは、 NATOの空爆によって引き起こさ瓦礫の下に埋もれ。地元のKLA司令官の記念碑USAF F-15Eは、から離陸アヴィアーノ空軍基地
日にち1998年2月28日– 1999年6月11日
(1年、3か月、2週間)
位置
結果

クマノヴォ条約

領土の
変更
決議1244よると、ユーゴスラビア国境へのデジュリの変更は ありませんが、国連の管理下に置かれたことによるコソボのFRユーゴスラビアからの事実上および部分的なデジュリの政治的および経済的独立
交戦者

UCK KLA.svg KLA


 FRユーゴスラビア
司令官と指導者

UCK KLA.svg アデム ・ジャシャリハシム・サチ・シレイマン・セリミ・ラムシュ・ハラディナイ・アギム・チェク
UCK KLA.svg
UCK KLA.svg
UCK KLA.svg
UCK KLA.svg


NATO ウェズリークラーク
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ミロシェビッチドラゴワブ・オダニックVlastimirĐorđevićスリートン・ルーキックNebojšaPavkovićブラディミール・ラザリービックゴラン・ラドサベビック






強さ

UCK KLA.svg17,000〜20,000人の武装勢力[13]


NATO cca。80機
イーグルアイ作戦[14]
NATO 1,031機
連合軍作戦[15]
NATO 30隻以上の軍艦と潜水艦[16]

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia85,000人の兵士[17](コソボとその周辺の40,000人を含む)[16]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 20,000人の警官
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia100個のSAMサイト[16]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1,400個の大砲
(地上と防空の両方)[16]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 240機の航空機[16]
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 2,032台の装甲車両と戦車[16]
セルビアの準軍事組織(ŠakaliŠkorpioni)、不明な数

ロシアのボランティア、数は不明[18] [19]
死傷者と損失

UCK KLA.svg 1,500 insurgents killed (KLA figures)[20]
UCK KLA.svg 2,131 insurgents killed (HLC figures)[21]


United States 2 killed (non-combat) and 3 captured[22][23]
United States 2 aircraft shot down and 3 damaged
[24][25][26][27]
United States Two AH-64 Apaches and an AV-8B Harrier crashed (non-combat)[28]


NATO 47 UAVs shot down[29]

Caused by NATO:
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1,008–1,200 killed[b]
14 tanks,[35] 18 APCs, 20 artillery pieces[36] and 121 aircraft and helicopters destroyed[37]

KLAとNATOによって引き起こされた:
1,084人が殺された(HLCの数字)[21]

Albania8676人のコソボアルバニアの民間人が死亡または行方不明[38]
Albania戦争中に変位コソボアルバニアの90%[39] コソボから追放848,000-863,000 [40] [41]コソボ内で変位59万コソボアルバニア)を[39]
1641 [21] –2,500 [42]セルブおよびその他の非アルバニアの民間人が殺害または行方不明(445ローマなど)[21]
230,000コソボのセルブロマーニおよびその他の非アルバニアの民間人が避難[43]
/ NATO爆撃Albaniaによる民間人の死亡:489–528 (ヒューマンライツウォッチによる[44]または454–2,500(HLCおよびTanjugの数値)。[45] [42]には、殺害されたChina3人の中国人ジャーナリストも含まれている

全体で13,548人の民間人と戦闘員が死亡した(アルバニア人、セルビア人、ボシュニャク人、ローマ人)[38]

コソボ紛争は武力紛争だったコソボ[A] 1998年2月28日開始した[46] [47] 1999年6月と11まで続いた[48]それはの力で戦ったユーゴスラビア連邦共和国(つまり、セルビア・モンテネグロ)、戦前にコソボを支配していた、そしてコソボ解放軍(KLA)として知られているコソボアルバニアの反政府勢力グループ北大西洋条約機構(NATO)が1999年3月に空爆を開始することにより介入し、その結果ユーゴスラビア軍がコソボから撤退したとき、紛争は終結した

コソボのアルバニア人に対するセルビアの迫害と戦うために1990年代初頭に結成されたKLA [49]は、1995年にコソボでセルビアの法執行機関に対する攻撃を開始したときに最初のキャンペーンを開始しました。 1996年6月、グループはコソボの反乱の際に、コソボの警察署を標的とした妨害行為の責任を主張した[50] [51] 1997年、組織反乱の後、アルバニアから武器を密輸することで大量の武器を入手した。その中で武器は国の警察と軍のポストから略奪されました。 1998年初頭、コソボのユーゴスラビア当局を標的としたKLA攻撃により、セルビアの準軍組織と正規軍の存在が増加し、その後、KLAの支持者と政敵を標的とした報復キャンペーンを開始しました。[52]このキャンペーンは、1,500から2,000人の民間人とKLA戦闘員を殺害した。[53] [54]

外交的解決の試みが失敗した後、NATOは介入し、キャンペーンを「人道戦争」として正当化した。[55]これは、ユーゴスラビアの空爆中(1999年3月から6月)にユーゴスラビア軍が戦い続けたため、コソボのアルバニア人の大量追放を引き起こした。[56] [57] 2000年までに、調査によりすべての民族のほぼ3000人の犠牲者の遺体が回収され[58]、2001年にコソボに本拠を置く国連が管理する最高裁判所は「殺人、レイプ、放火、深刻な虐待を含むテロ」が、ユーゴスラビア軍はアルバニア人を根絶するのではなく、排除しようとした。[59]

戦争はクマノヴォ条約終わり、ユーゴスラビア軍とセルビア軍[60]は、国際的なプレゼンスに道を譲るためにコソボから撤退することに同意した。[61] [62]コソボ解放軍は、そのメンバーの一部がために戦うに行くと、すぐにこの後に解散UÇPMBプレシェヴォ渓谷[63]と参加他民族解放軍(NLA)とアルバニア民族軍(ANAを)マケドニアでの武装民族紛争中[64]、他の人々はコソボ警察を結成しました[65]戦後、2年間の紛争で13,500人以上が殺害または行方不明になったというリストが作成されました。[66]ユーゴスラビア軍とセルビア軍は、120万人[67]から145万人のコソボ系アルバニア人の避難を引き起こした[68]戦後、約20万人のセルビア人、ロマ人、その他の非アルバニア人がコソボから逃亡し、残りの民間人の多くは虐待の犠牲者となった。[69] [70] [71]

NATOの爆撃作戦は、国連安全保障理事会の承認を得られず、かなりの数のコソボ難民を含む少なくとも488人のユーゴスラビアの民間人の死を引き起こしたため[72]物議を醸し続けている[73] [74] [75]

バックグラウンド

ティトのユーゴスラビアのコソボ(1945–1980)

現代のアルバニア、セルビアの競合は、その中にルーツ有するアルバニアの追放に組み込まれた領域からセルビア公国、およびセルビア人の虐殺コソボvilayet内を1901 [76] [77]セルビアとアルバニアコミュニティ間の緊張コソボでは、20世紀を通じて沸騰し、特に第一次バルカン戦争(1912–13)、第一次世界大戦(1914–18)、第二次世界大戦(1939–45)の間に時折大規模な暴力に発展しました。第一次世界大戦後、コソボはセルビア人が支配するユーゴスラビア王国に編入されましたアルバニア人コミュニティがアルバニアとの連合を要求しているにもかかわらず。[78] 1945年以降、ヨシップ・ブロズ・ティト政権の新しい社会主義政府は、ユーゴスラビア全体ナショナリズムのすべての兆候を体系的に抑制し、共和国や国籍が他の共和国や国籍を支配しないように努めた。特に、ティトは北のセルビアのヴォイヴォディナ州と南のコソボとメトヒヤ自治政府を設立することによりセルビア(最大かつ最も人口の多い共和国)の力を弱めました。コソボの国境は、ユーゴスラビアのアルバニア人の入植地と正確に一致していませんでした(かなりの数のアルバニア人がマケドニア社会主義共和国モンテネグロセルビア)。 1945年のユーゴスラビア憲法の下で確立されたコソボの正式な自治は、当初は実際には比較的ほとんど意味がありませんでした。秘密警察(UDBA)はナショナリストにハード取り締まっ。 1956年、多くのアルバニア人がスパイ活動と転覆の罪でコソボで裁判にかけられました。アルバニアとの連合を目指す少数の地下組織は政治的意義がほとんどなかったため、分離主義の脅威は実際には最小限でした。しかし、一部の人々、特にアルバニア統一のための革命運動が設立されたように、彼らの長期的な影響は大きくなりました[いつ? ]によってアデム・デマシ—最終的にはコソボ解放軍(1990年に設立)の政治的核心を形成するでしょう。デマシ自身は彼の信者の多くと一緒に1964年に投獄されました。ユーゴスラビアは、経済改革の大規模な政府プログラムが国の豊かな北と貧しい南の間のギャップを広げたので、1969年に経済的および政治的危機の期間を経験しました。

1968年6月のベオグラードでの学生のデモと暴動は11月にコソボに広がりましたが、ユーゴスラビア治安部隊はそれらを鎮圧しました。ティトはセルビアやユーゴスラビア国家機関とのより良い認識の両方でアルバニア人のための学生の要望-で特に、代表権限の一部を認めアルバニアの言語をプリシュティナの大学が機関はの前哨基地として実行されていたときに長い期間を終了し、1970年に独立した機関として設立されましたベオグラード大学。ユーゴスラビアでのアルバニア語の教材の不足がコソボでのアルバニア語教育を妨げたため、教科書を提供することアルバニア自体と合意が成立しました

1969年、セルビア正教会、コソボ進行中のセルビア人の問題に関するデータを編集するよう聖職者に命じ、ベオグラードの政府にセルビア人の利益を保護するためにより多くのことをするよう圧力をかけようとしました。[79]

1974年、新しいユーゴスラビア憲法が拡大された一連の政治的権利を認めたとき、コソボの政治的地位はさらに向上しました。コソボはヴォイヴォディナとともにとして宣言され、連邦大統領とその議会、警察、国立銀行の議席など、本格的な共和国の多くの権力を獲得しました[80] [81]

チトーの死後(1980–86)

州の権力は依然としてコソボ共産主義者連盟によって行使されていましたが、現在は主にアルバニア人の共産主義者に委譲されています。 1980年5月4日のチトーの死は、経済危機の拡大とナショナリストの不安によって悪化し、長期にわたる政情不安をもたらしました。最初の大発生は、コソボの主要都市であるプリシュティナ発生しました。プリシュティナ大学の学生が大学の食堂で長い列を作って抗議することが急速に拡大し、1981年3月下旬から4月上旬にコソボ全体に広がり、1981年にいくつかの町で大規模なデモが行われました。コソボでの抗議ユーゴスラビア大統領が非常事態を宣言することにより、騒乱は鎮圧された、機動隊と軍隊を送り込み、多くの死傷者を出しました。

共産主義の強硬派は、あらゆる種類のナショナリズムに対する激しい取り締まりを開始しました。コソボは、1980年代のほとんどを通じて、アルバニア人とセルビア人の両方の無許可のナショナリストの症状を容赦なく抑圧した、秘密警察の重い存在に耐えました。マーク・トンプソンが引用した報告によると、コソボの58万人もの住民が逮捕、尋問、抑留、または叱責されました。これらの何千人もが職を失ったか、教育機関から追放されました。この間、アルバニア人とセルビア人のコミュニティ間の緊張は高まり続けました。

1982年2月、セルビアの司祭グループが司教たちに「セルビア教会が沈黙している理由」と「コソボの聖なる神社の破壊、放火、犠牲」に反対するキャンペーンを行わなかった理由を尋ねるように適切に請願しました。そのような懸念はベオグラードへの関心を引き付けました。セルビア人とモンテネグロ人が迫害されていると主張する物語がベオグラードのメディアに時々登場しました。セルビアの民族主義者の間には、セルビア人がコソボから追い出されているという認識がありました。

これらすべてに加えて、コソボの経済状況の悪化により、この州はセルビア人が仕事を探すのに適していませんでした。アルバニア人とセルビア人は、新入社員を雇うときに同胞を好む傾向がありましたが、人口にとって仕事の数は少なすぎました。コソボはユーゴスラビアで最も貧しい存在でした。1人当たりの平均収入は795ドルでしたが、全国平均は2,635ドルでした。

1981年、3月のコソボアルバニア人暴動の後、約4,000人のセルビア人がコソボから中央セルビアに移動し、セルビア人が数人死亡し、セルビア正教会の建築と墓地が冒涜されたと報告されました。[82]セルビアは、州内のアルバニア人の力を減らす計画と、経済の悪い状態ではなく、主にアルバニア人の人口の増加によってセルビア人が州から追い出されていると主張する宣伝キャンペーンに反応した。[83] 33の民族主義組織がユーゴスラビア警察によって解体され、ユーゴスラビア警察は約280人(罰金800人、調査中100人)に刑を宣告し、武器庫と宣伝資料を押収した。[84]

コソボとスロボダン・ミロシェビッチの台頭(1986–90)

1987年、デビッドバインダーニューヨークタイムズで、ユーゴスラビアの民族的緊張の高まりとコソボのアルバニア人のナショナリズムの高まりについて書き、JNAのアルバニア人兵士が4人の兵士を殺害したパラチン虐殺について言及しました[85]バインダーはまた、スロボダン・ミロシェビッチが直前にベオグラードの党組織の長としてドラギサ・パブロビッチ解任したことを書いたが、「ミロシェビッチ氏はパブロビッチ氏をアルバニアの過激派に弱い和解者であると非難した」と書いた。ミロシェビッチと彼の支持者たちは、コソボのアルバニア人との対立の戦略に彼らのキャリアを賭けているようだ」と語った。[85] The article quotes the Federal Secretary for National Defence, Fleet Adm. Branko Mamula, who claimed that "from 1981 to 1987, 216 illegal Albanian organisations with 1,435 members were discovered in the JNA". Mamula had also said that ethnic Albanian subversives had been preparing for "killing officers and soldiers, poisoning food and water, sabotage, breaking into weapons arsenals and stealing arms and ammunition, desertion and causing flagrant nationalist incidents in army units".[85]

コソボでは、セルビア人とアルバニア人の間のますます有毒な雰囲気が広まり、さもなければ些細な事件が不釣り合いに吹き飛ばされました。セルビア科学芸術アカデミー(SANU)が1985年と1986年にコソボを去ったセルビア人の調査を実施したのはこの緊張した背景に反しており、かなりの数がアルバニア人からの圧力を受けて去ったと結論付けました。[86]

1986年9月にリークされたいわゆるSANU覚書は、ユーゴスラビアでセルビア人が直面している政治的困難に焦点を当てた草案であり、セルビアの権力に対するティトの意図的な妨害とセルビア外のセルビア人が直面している困難を指摘している。。コソボのセルビア人は1981年の春から続いていた「開かれた総力戦」で「物理的、政治的、法的、文化的虐殺」にさらされていたと主張し、コソボに特別な注意を払いました。 1986年は、1804年にオスマン帝国から解放されて以来、セルビア人にとって歴史的な敗北が最も悪かったため、世界戦争の占領などの大惨事よりも上位にランクされました。覚書の著者は、過去20年間に20万人のセルビア人が州外に移動したと主張し、「物事が根本的に変化しない限り」すぐに誰も残らないだろうと警告した。覚書によると、救済策は「コソボとメトヒヤに住むすべての人々の真の安全と明確な平等が確立される」ことでした。追放された[セルビア]国家の返還のための客観的かつ恒久的な条件が作成された。」と結論付けた。 「SANU覚書は分裂反応を引き起こした。アルバニア人はそれを地方レベルでのセルビアの覇権の呼びかけと見なし、セルビア人移民が経済的理由でコソボを去ったと主張し、スロベネスとクローツはより積極的なセルビアの呼びかけに脅威を見た。セルビア人は分かれていました:多くの人がそれを歓迎しましたが、共産主義の古い警備員はそのメッセージを強く攻撃しました。「SANU覚書は分裂反応を引き起こした。アルバニア人はそれを地方レベルでのセルビアの覇権の呼びかけと見なし、セルビア人移民が経済的理由でコソボを去ったと主張し、スロベネスとクローツはより積極的なセルビアの呼びかけに脅威を見た。セルビア人は分かれていました:多くの人がそれを歓迎しましたが、共産主義の古い警備員はそのメッセージを強く攻撃しました。「SANU覚書は分裂反応を引き起こした。アルバニア人はそれを地方レベルでのセルビアの覇権の呼びかけと見なし、セルビア人移民が経済的理由でコソボを去ったと主張し、スロベネスとクローツはより積極的なセルビアの呼びかけに脅威を見た。セルビア人は分かれていました:多くの人がそれを歓迎しましたが、共産主義の古い警備員はそのメッセージを強く攻撃しました。Serbian Communist Party official Slobodan Milošević.[citation needed]

In November 1988 Kosovo's head of the provincial committee was arrested. In March 1989 Milošević announced an "anti-bureaucratic revolution" in Kosovo and Vojvodina, curtailing their autonomy as well as imposing a curfew and a state of emergency in Kosovo due to violent demonstrations, resulting in 24 deaths (including two policemen). Milošević and his government claimed that the constitutional changes were necessary to protect Kosovo's remaining Serbs against harassment from the Albanian majority.[87][citation needed]

Constitutional amendments (1989–94)

Events

1988年11月17日カクシャ・ジャシャリアゼム・ブラシはのリーダーシップから辞任を余儀なくされたコソボの共産主義者同盟(LCK)。[88] [89] [90] 1989年初頭、セルビア議会はセルビア憲法の改正を提案し、セルビア共和国の称号から「社会主義者」という言葉を削除し、多党選挙を確立し、自治機関の独立性を排除した。コソボなどの州で、コソボの名前をコソボとメトヒジャの自治州に変更します。[91] [92]2月、コソボのアルバニア人は、印象的な鉱山労働者によって大胆に、提案に反対する多数のデモを行いました。[90] [93]ベオグラードのセルビア人は、コソボのアルバニア人の分離主義に抗議した。[94] 1989年3月3日、ユーゴスラビア大統領は、連邦政府に公安の責任を割り当てる特別措置を課した。[93] 3月23日、コソボ議会は提案された修正案を受け入れることを決議したが、ほとんどのアルバニア代表は棄権した。[93] 1990年初頭、コソボのアルバニア人は特別措置に反対する大規模なデモを行い、1990年4月18日に解除され、公安の責任が再びセルビアに割り当てられた。[93][95]

1989年5月8日、ミロシェビッチはセルビア大統領に就任し、 12月6日に確認されました。[93] 1990年1月22日、ユーゴスラビア共産党連盟(LCY)第14回大会は、ユーゴスラビアで唯一の合法政党としての党の立場を廃止した。[96] 1990年1月、ユーゴスラビア政府は複数政党制の創設を推進すると発表した。[96]

1990年6月26日、セルビア当局は特別な事情を理由にコソボ議会を閉鎖した。[95] 1990年7月1日または2日、セルビアは国民投票でセルビア憲法の新しい改正を承認した。[95] [97]また、7月2日、180人のメンバーからなるコソボ議会の114人のアルバニア人代表が、コソボをユーゴスラビア内の独立共和国と宣言した。[95] [93] 7月5日、セルビア議会はコソボ議会を解散させた。[95] [93]セルビアはまた、州の執行評議会を解散し、州の完全かつ直接的な支配権を握った。[98]セルビアはコソボの主要なアルバニア語メディアの管理を引き継ぎ、アルバニア語の放送を停止した。[98] On 4 September 1990 Kosovar Albanians observed a 24-hour general strike, virtually shutting down the province.[98]

On 16 or 17 July 1990 the League of Communists of Serbia (LCS) combined with the Socialist Alliance of Working People of Serbia to become the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), and Milošević became its first president.[99][93] On 8 August 1990 several amendments to the federal Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) Constitution were adopted enabling the establishment of a multi-party election system.[97]

1990年9月7日、コソボ共和国の憲法は、解散したコソボ議会によって公布されました。[97]ミロシェビッチは、解散したコソボ議会の議員の逮捕を命じることでこれに応えた。[98]新しい物議を醸すセルビア憲法は1990年9月28日に公布された。[92] 1990年12月9日と26日にセルビアで多党選挙が行われ、その後ミロシェビッチがセルビアの大統領になった[93] 1991年9月、コソボのアルバニア人は非公式の国民投票を行い、圧倒的に独立に投票した。[93] 1992年5月24日、コソボのアルバニア人は、コソボ共和国の議会および大統領のために非公式の選挙を行った。[93]

1991年8月5日にセルビア議会はプリシュティナ毎日中断Rilindjaを[98] [100] 1991年3月29日の広報に関する法律の制定、次のパノラマ組み込ま11月6日に出版社Rilindjaを連邦政府によって違憲と宣言して、当局。[101] 国連特別報告者 タデウシュ・マゾビエツキは1993年2月26日、警察は1990年以来、アルバニア人の基本的権利の剥奪、教育制度の破壊、多数の公務員の政治的解雇など、アルバニア人の抑圧を強めていると報告した。 。[101]

戦争の噴火

戦争へのスライド(1995–1998)

イブラヒム・ルゴヴァ、最初のコソボ共和国大統領は、中にコソボの平和を維持することに成功した受動的抵抗の政策を追求以前の戦争ではスロベニアクロアチアボスニア1990年代初頭の間にを。コソボ解放軍(KLA)の出現によって証明されるように、これはコソボのアルバニア人の間で欲求不満を増大させるという犠牲を払って来ました。 1990年代半ば、ルゴバはコソボの国連平和維持軍訴えました。 1997年、ミロシェビッチはユーゴスラビア連邦共和国の大統領に昇進しました(1992年4月の発足以来、セルビアとモンテネグロで構成されています)。

Continuing repression[citation needed] convinced many Albanians that only armed resistance would change the situation. On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in different parts of Kosovo. The KLA, a hitherto-unknown organisation, subsequently claimed responsibility. The nature of the KLA was at first mysterious. It initially seemed that their only goals were to stop repression from Yugoslav authorities.[citation needed]

グループのスポークスマンであるJakupKrasniqiが述べたように、KLAは、ルゴバ率いる政党であるコソボ民主連盟(LDK)の一部のメンバーによって結成されました[102] KLAとLDKは、ベオグラードからの弾圧を終わらせ、コソボを独立させるという共通の目標を共有したが、KLAはLDKによるコソボの「内部支配」に反対した。[102]

KLAの目標には、周辺のFYRマケドニアモンテネグロセルビア南部に広がる州である大アルバニアの設立も含まれていました[102] [103] 1998年7月、Der SpiegelのインタビューでJakup Krasniqiは、KLAの目標がすべてのアルバニア人居住地の統一であると公に発表した。[103] 1998年から1999年にKLAの総司令官であったSulejmanSelimiは、次のように述べています。 [102]

There is de facto Albanian nation. The tragedy is that European powers after World War I decided to divide that nation between several Balkan states. We are now fighting to unify the nation, to liberate all Albanians, including those in Macedonia, Montenegro, and other parts of Serbia. We are not just a liberation army for Kosovo.

While Rugova promised to uphold the minority rights of Serbs in Kosovo, the KLA was much less tolerant. Selimi stated that "Serbs who have blood on their hands would have to leave the Kosovo".[102]

Serbian victims during insurgency

It is widely believed[by whom?] that the KLA received financial and material support from the Kosovo Albanian diaspora.[104][105] In early 1997, Albania collapsed into chaos following the fall of President Sali Berisha. Albanian Armed Forces stockpiles were looted with impunity by criminal gangs, with much of the hardware ending up in western Kosovo and boosting the growing KLA arsenal. Bujar Bukoshi, shadow Prime Minister in exile (in Zürich, Switzerland), created a group called FARK (Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosova), which was reported to have been disbanded and absorbed by the KLA in 1998.[citation needed] The Yugoslav government considered the KLA to be "terrorists" and "insurgents" who indiscriminately attacked police and civilians, while most Albanians saw the KLA as "freedom fighters".

In 1998, the US State Department listed the KLA as a terrorist organisation,[105] and in 1999 the US Senate Republican Policy Committee expressed its troubles with the "effective alliance" of the Democratic Clinton administration with the KLA due to "numerous reports from reputable unofficial sources".[106] In 2004, John Pilger claimed that for six years prior to 1998, the KLA had been regarded by the US as a terrorist group.[107] Early in 1998, US envoy Robert Gelbard referred to the KLA as terrorists;[108] responding to criticism, he later clarified to the 下院外交委員会は、「「テロ行為」を行ったが、「米国政府によってテロ組織として法的に分類されていない」と述べた。」[106] 1998年6月、彼は2人の男性と会談した。 KLAの政治指導者でした。[108] 2000年、モラル・コンバット–ナト・アット・ウォーと呼ばれるBBCのドキュメンタリーは、米国が現在どのようにグループとの関係を模索しているかを示した。[109]米国は公式にKLAをテロリストと表現しているが、著者のアラステア・マッケンジーは、KLAがアメリカ人に最も近いNATOの同盟国である英国によって訓練を受けたと主張している。, since 1998 in a training camp in the mountains above the northern Albanian town of Bajram Curri.[110]

Meanwhile, the US held an "outer wall of sanctions" on Yugoslavia which had been tied to a series of issues, including Kosovo. These were maintained despite the agreement at Dayton to end all sanctions. The Clinton administration claimed that the agreement bound Yugoslavia to hold discussions with Rugova over Kosovo.

The crisis escalated in December 1997 at the Peace Implementation Council meeting in Bonn, where the international community (as defined in the Dayton Agreement) agreed to give the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina sweeping powers, including the right to dismiss elected leaders. At the same time, Western diplomats insisted that Kosovo be discussed, and that Yugoslavia be responsive to Albanian demands there. The delegation from Yugoslavia stormed out of the meetings in protest.[111] This was followed by the return of the Contact Group that oversaw the last phases of the Bosnian conflict and declarations from European powers demanding that Yugoslavia solve the problem in Kosovo.

War begins

KLA attacks intensified, centering on the Drenica valley area with the compound of Adem Jashari being a focal point. Days after Robert Gelbard described the KLA as a terrorist group, Serbian police responded to the KLA attacks in the Likošane area, and pursued some of the KLA to Čirez, resulting in the deaths of 16 Albanian fighters[112] and four Serbian policemen.[113] The KLA's goal was to merge its Drenica stronghold with their stronghold in Albania proper, and this would shape the first few months of the fighting.[citation needed]

即決処刑と民間人の殺害のいくつかの非難にもかかわらず、西側の首都からの非難は、彼らが後でなるほど不安定ではありませんでした。セルビア人警察は、DonjePrekazeの村でJashariと彼の追随者を追跡し始めました。 1998年3月5日、ジャシャリ複合施設での大規模な銃撃戦により60人のアルバニア人が虐殺され、そのうち18人が女性で、10人が16歳未満でした。[114]この出来事は、西部の首都からの大規模な非難を引き起こした。マデレーン・オルブライトは、「この危機はFRYの内政ではない」と述べた。[115]

On 24 March, Yugoslav forces surrounded the village of Glodjane and attacked a rebel compound there.[116] Despite superior firepower, the Yugoslav forces failed to destroy the KLA unit, which had been their objective. Although there were deaths and severe injuries on the Albanian side, the insurgency in Glodjane was far from stamped out. It was in fact to become one of the strongest centres of resistance in the upcoming war.

この時、セルビア社会党セルビア急進党が主導する新しいユーゴスラビア政府が結成された。ウルトラナショナリストの急進党議長のヴォイスラヴ・シェシェリが副首相に就任した。これは、西側の外交官とスポークスパーソンの間で国の立場に対する不満を増大させました。

In early April, Serbia arranged for a referendum on the issue of foreign interference in Kosovo. Serbian voters decisively rejected foreign interference in the crisis.[117] Meanwhile, the KLA claimed much of the area in and around Deçan and ran a territory based in the village of Glodjane, encompassing its surroundings. On 31 May 1998, the Yugoslav army and the Serb Ministry of the Interior police began an operation to clear the border of the KLA. NATO's response to this offensive was mid-June's Operation Determined Falcon, a NATO show of force over the Yugoslav borders.[118]

During this time, Yugoslav President Milošević reached an arrangement with Boris Yeltsin of Russia to stop offensive operations and prepare for talks with the Albanians, who refused to talk to the Serbian side throughout the crisis, but would talk with the Yugoslav government. In fact, the only meeting between Milošević and Ibrahim Rugova happened on 15 May in Belgrade, two days after Richard Holbrooke announced that it would take place. Holbrooke threatened Milošević that if he did not obey, "what's left of your country will implode".[119]1か月後、ホルブルックは6月初旬の戦闘の影響を受けた国境地域を訪れ、KLAで有名な写真を撮りました。これらの画像の公開は、KLA、その支持者と共感者、そして一般のオブザーバーに、米国がKLAとコソボのアルバニア人を断固として支持しているという合図を送りました。[要出典]

エリツィン協定は、ミロシェビッチが国際代表がコソボで状況を監視するための任務を設定することを許可することを要求した。コソボ外交オブザーバーミッション(KDOMが)早い1998年7月に操業を開始した米国政府は、契約のこの部分を歓迎しますが、相互の停戦のためのイニシアチブの呼び出しを非難しました。むしろ、米国はセルビア・ユーゴスラビア側が「テロ活動の停止との関連なしに」停戦すべきであると要求した。

6月から7月中旬まで、KLAはその前進を維持した。 KLAは、囲まれたPECĐakovicaを、との町に暫定的な自己資本比率を設定Mališevo(北Orahovac)。 KLA部隊は、スハレカとプリシュティナの北西に潜入しました。彼らは6月下旬にベラセベックの石炭ピットを占領し、この地域のエネルギー供給を脅かしました。彼らの戦術はいつものように、主にゲリラ山岳戦、そしてユーゴスラビア軍とセルビア人警察のパトロールへの嫌がらせと待ち伏せに焦点を合わせていた[要出典]

The tide turned in mid-July when the KLA captured Orahovac. On 17 July 1998, two nearby villages, Retimlije and Opteruša, were also captured, while less systematic events took place in the larger Serb-populated village of Velika Hoča. The Orthodox monastery of Zočište three miles (4.8 km) was looted and torched.[120] This led to a series of Serb and Yugoslav offensives which would continue into the beginning of August.[citation needed]

8月中旬の新しい一連のKLA攻撃は、プリシュティナ-ペッチ道路の南にあるコソボ中南部でユーゴスラビアの作戦を引き起こしました。 KLAは9月1日にプリズレン周辺で攻撃を開始し、そこでユーゴスラビアの軍事活動を引き起こした。コソボ西部のペッチ周辺では、国際当局が避難民の大規模な列が攻撃されることへの恐れを表明したため、別の攻撃が非難を引き起こした。[要出典]

9月中旬に初めて、コソボ北部のPodujevo周辺でKLA活動が報告されました最後に、9月下旬に、コソボの北部と中央部、およびドレニツァ渓谷自体からKLAを一掃するための断固たる努力がなされました。この間、西側の首都から多くの脅威が発生しましたが、セルビアの民主党員と過激派が勝利することを望まなかったため、ボスニアでの選挙によってこれらは幾分和らげられました。選挙後、脅威は再び激化したが、活気に満ちたイベントが必要だった。彼らは9月28日、家族の切断された死体がGornjeObrinjeの村の外でKDOMによって発見されときにそれを手に入れました子供の人形の血まみれのイメージと避難民の流れは、国際社会を行動に駆り立てました。[121]

士気

士気はセルビア軍にとって深刻な問題でした。インテリジェンス調査では、多くの兵士が仲間の行動に反対していることがわかりました。ある戦車長は、「私がコソボにいる間ずっと、敵の兵士を見たことがなく、私の部隊が敵の標的への発砲に関与したことは一度もありませんでした。それぞれ250万ドルの戦車は、アルバニアの子供たちを虐殺するために使用されました。私は恥ずかしい"。[122]

When retreating from Kosovo after NATO intervention, Yugoslav units appeared combat effective with high morale and displaying large holdings of undamaged equipment.[123] Weeks before the end of hostilities, David Fromkin noted that "it seemed possible that NATO unity might crack before Yugoslav morale did."[124] The announcement by President Clinton that the US would not deploy ground troops gave a tremendous boost to Serbian morale.[125]

UN, NATO, and OSCE (1998–1999)

Clinton talks on the phone about the Kosovo War

1998年6月9日、ビル・クリントン米大統領は、コソボ戦争をめぐってユーゴスラビアとセルビアによって課された「米国の国家安全保障と外交政策に対する異常で異常な脅威」のために「国家非常事態」(非常事態)を宣言した[126]

On 23 September 1998, acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1199. This expressed 'grave concern' at reports reaching the Secretary General that over 230,000 people had been displaced from their homes by 'the excessive and indiscriminate use of force by Serbian security forces and the Yugoslav Army',[127] demanding that all parties in Kosovo and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cease hostilities and maintain a ceasefire. On 24 September the North Atlantic Council (NAC) of NATO issued an "activation warning" taking NATO to an increased level of military preparedness for both a limited air option and a phased air campaign in Kosovo.[128]力の使用に頼る以外に選択肢がなかった人々にとっての他の主要な問題は、推定25万人の避難民アルバニア人であり、そのうち3万人は防寒着や避難所がなく、冬が近づいて森に出ていた。

その間、マケドニア共和国の米国大使クリストファー・ヒルシャトル外交を主導していました between an Albanian delegation, led by Rugova, and the Yugoslav and Serbian authorities. These meetings were shaping the peace plan to be discussed during a period of planned NATO occupation of Kosovo. During a period of two weeks, threats intensified, culminating in NATO's Activation Order being given. NATO was ready to begin airstrikes, and Richard Holbrooke went to Belgrade in the hope of reaching an agreement with Milošević. Officially, the international community demanded an end to fighting. It specifically demanded that Yugoslavia end its offensives against the KLA whilst attempting to convince the KLA to drop its bid for independence. Attempts were made to persuade Milošević to permit NATO peacekeeping troops to enter Kosovo. This, they argued, would allow for the Christopher Hill peace process to proceed and yield a peace agreement.

1998年10月13日、北大西洋理事会は、両方の限定を実行するための起動命令を発行した空爆と段階的な空気キャンペーンの約96時間後に開始するとユーゴスラビアインチ [129] 10月15日、停戦に関するNATOコソボ検証ミッション(KVM)協定が調印され、撤退の期限が10月27日に延長された。[130] [131]政府軍とゲリラの間で衝突が続いたため、協定の実施の難しさが報告された。[132]セルビアの撤退は1998年10月25日頃に始まり、イーグルアイ作戦は10月30日に始まった。[130] [131]

KVMは、コソボに移転した非武装の欧州安全保障協力機構(OSCE)の平和モニター(正式には検証者として知られている)の大規模な派遣団でした。彼らの不十分さは最初から明白でした。鮮やかな色の車にちなんで「時計仕掛けのオレンジ」と呼ばれていました。双方が停戦を破った後、1998年12月に戦闘が再開され[133]、この暴力の急増は、コソボ・ポリェの町のセルビア人市長であるズボンコ・ボジャニッチの殺害に至った。ユーゴスラビア当局は、KLA過激派に対する取り締まりを開始することで対応しました。[134]

戦争の1999年1月から3月の段階は、爆撃や殺人を含む都市部の不安を増大させました。このような攻撃は、2月のランブイエ交渉中および3月にコソボ検証協定が解体されたときに発生しました。道路での殺害は継続し、増加した。とりわけ、2月ヴシュトリ地域と3月初旬のこれまで影響を受けなかったカチャニク地域で軍事対立があった

1999年1月15日、「45人のコソボのアルバニア人農民が切り上げられ、丘を登り、虐殺された」ときにラチャクの虐殺が発生しました。[135]遺体は、ウィリアム・ウォーカー公館長を含むOSCEモニター、および外国のニュース特派員によって発見された[136] [137]ユーゴスラビアは虐殺が起こったことを否定した。[137]ラチャクの虐殺は、1998年から1999年の冬を通して続いたKLAとユーゴスラビア軍の間の紛争の集大成であった。事件はすぐに西側諸国国連安全保障理事会によって虐殺として非難されました、そして後にミロシェビッチと彼の高官に対して平準化された戦争犯罪の告発の1つの基礎となった。この虐殺は戦争のターニングポイントでした。NATOは、NATOの後援の下で軍事平和維持軍を導入し、双方を強制的に拘束することによってのみ紛争を解決できると判断した。OSCEの報告によると、コソボの首都プリシュティナは激しい銃撃戦と隔離にさらされていました。[138]

ランブイエ会議(1999年1月〜3月)

1999年1月30日、NATOは、北大西洋理事会が「NATO事務総長がFRY領土の標的に対する空爆を許可する」ことに同意したことを発表する声明を発表し、「国際社会の要求の遵守を[強制]し、[達成する]政治的解決」。[139]これは明らかにミロシェビッチ政府に対する脅威であったが、アルバニア人に対するコード化された脅威も含まれていた。決定は「コソボアルバニア指導部とコソボおよびその周辺のすべてのコソボアルバニア武装勢力の立場と行動に依存する」 。」[139]

また、1999年1月30日に、コンタクトグループは、「現状維持プラス」として知られるパッケージを構成する一連の「交渉不可能な原則」を発表しました。これは、セルビア内でのコソボの1990年以前の自治の回復に加えて、民主主義と監督の導入です。国際機関による。また、1999年2月にパリ郊外のランブイエ城で平和会議を開催するよう求めた

ランブイエ交渉をして、1999年2月6日に始まったNATO事務総長 ハビエル・ソラナ両側と交渉します。彼らは2月19日までに結論を出すことを意図していた。 FRユーゴスラビア代表団は、セルビアのミランミルティノビッチ大統領が率いていましたが、ミロシェビッチ自身はベオグラードに留まりました。これは、ミロシェビッチが直接交渉したボスニアでの戦争を終結させた1995年のデイトン会議とは対照的でした。ミロシェビッチの不在は、本当の決定がベオグラードで行われていたことの兆候として解釈されました。これは、ユーゴスラビアだけでなく海外でも批判を呼んだ動きです。コソボのセルビア正教会の司教アルテミエ代表団が完全に代表的ではなかったことに抗議するためにランブイエまでずっと旅をしました。当時、ミロシェビッチが戦争犯罪で起訴されたという憶測が飛び交っていたので、彼の不在は逮捕の恐れが動機となったのかもしれません。

1999年のコソボ戦争における第72特別旅団ユーゴスラビア軍の装備

交渉の第一段階は成功しました。特に、1999年2月23日にコンタクトグループの共同議長が声明を発表し、交渉は「コソボの統治のための民主的機関への自由で公正な選挙のメカニズムを含む、コソボの実質的な自治に関するコンセンサスつながった」と述べた。、人権と国民共同体のメンバーの権利の保護のため、そして公正な司法制度の確立のために」。彼らはさらに「政治的枠組みが整っている」と述べ、「コソボでの招待された国際民間人と軍のプレゼンスのモダリティを含む協定の実施章」を最終決定するさらなる作業を残した[要出典]セルビア人は自治政府、自由選挙、すべての政治犯の釈放に同意したが、西側もNATO軍の存在を主張した。[140]

合意はアルバニア人を完全に満足させるものではなかったが、ユーゴスラビア人にとっては過激すぎた。ユーゴスラビア人は、ロシア(ユーゴスラビアFRの同盟国)でさえ受け入れられないと判断した大幅に改訂されたテキストに置き換えることで対応した。それは、コソボの入念に交渉された政治的地位を再開しようとし、提案されたすべての実施措置を削除した。提案された新しいバージョンの他の多くの変更の中で、人道支援と復興に関する章全体を削除し、事実上すべての国際的な監視を削除し、「[コソボの]人々の意志」を呼び出すことについての言及を削除しました。州。[要出典]

1999年3月18日、アルバニア、米国、英国の代表団は、ランブイエ合意として知られるようになったものに署名しました。、ユーゴスラビア人とロシアの代表団は拒否したが。協定は、ユーゴスラビア内の自治州としてのコソボのNATO政権、コソボの秩序を維持するための3万人のNATO軍の力を要求した。コソボを含むユーゴスラビア領土でのNATO軍の通過儀礼。そして、NATOとその代理人に対するユーゴスラビア法に対する免責。彼らはまた、国境警備のために1,500人の軍隊、指揮および支援機能を実行するための最大1,000人の軍隊、および少数の国境警備隊、公安目的のための2,500人の通常のMUPに支えられた、継続的なユーゴスラビア軍の存在を許可したであろう。引き下ろし、変容することが期待されていた)、そして3,000人の地元警察。[141]

ユーゴスラビア政府は、反対の理由としてランブイエ条項の付録Bの軍事条項を引用し、ユーゴスラビアの主権の容認できない違反であると主張しましたが、これらの条項は、SFOR(安定化部隊)のためにボスニアに適用されたものと本質的に同じでした。)1995年のデイトン合意後のミッション。双方は、より根本的な問題について意見が一致していないため、この問題について詳細に議論しなかった。[142]特に、セルビア側は、コソボにNATO軍が駐留し、治安部隊に取って代わるという考えを拒否し、非武装の国連オブザーバーを選好した。ミロシェビッチ自身は、NATOに受け入れられないことを通知した後、それらを受け入れられるようにする条項の修正を提案するように求められた後でも、別館について議論することを拒否しました。[143]

ランブイエでの失敗と代替ユーゴスラビア提案の後、OSCEの国際監視員は、予想されるNATO爆撃作戦に先立って彼らの安全を確保するために、3月22日に撤退した。[144] 3月23日、セルビア議会はコソボの自治の原則と協定の非軍事的側面を受け入れたが、NATO軍の存在を拒否した。[144] [145]

コソボで戦争犯罪で起訴された6人の元セルビア人指導者に関する2009年の判決で、ICTYは、ランブイエでの交渉の崩壊の原因は複雑であると述べ、「国際交渉担当者は、それぞれに対して完全に公平なアプローチをとらなかった。党の立場とコソボアルバニア人を支持する傾向がありました。」目撃者によると、1999年4月14日、ホワイトハウスがセルビア系アメリカ人コミュニティの代表者であるビル・クリントン大統領との会合で開始したことをさらに記録した。「コソボのアルバニア人に対する国民投票を許可する規定は行き過ぎであり、もし彼がミロシェビッチの立場にあったならば、彼はおそらく[ランブイエ]合意案にも署名しなかっただろう」と述べた。[146]

NATO爆撃のタイムライン

1999年3月24日にイタリアのアビアノ空軍基地から離陸する前の滑走路への米国のF-117ナイトホークタクシー

1999年3月23日21:30UTCに、リチャードホルブルックはブリュッセルに戻り、和平交渉が失敗したことを発表し、軍事行動のために問題をNATOに正式に手渡した。[147] [148]発表の数時間前に、ユーゴスラビアは、戦争の差し迫った脅威を引用して非常事態を宣言し、軍隊と資源の大規模な動員を開始したことを全国テレビで発表した。[147] [149]

1999年3月23日午後09時17分で、UTC、NATOの事務総長ハビエル・ソラナは、彼が監督したと発表した最高裁連合軍司令ヨーロッパ(SACEUR)、米陸軍一般ウェズリー・クラークの「ユーゴスラビア連邦共和国の航空作戦を開始すること、。 「」[149] [150] 3月24日19:00UTCに、NATOはユーゴスラビアに対する爆撃作戦を開始した。[151] [152]

Aトマホーク巡航ミサイルの後部ミサイルデッキから起動USSゴンザレス1999年3月31日に

NATOの爆撃作戦は、1999年3月24日から6月11日まで続き、主にイタリアの基地から運航する最大1,000機の航空機と、アドリア海に駐屯する空母が関与しましたトマホーク 巡航ミサイルも広く使用され、航空機、船、潜水艦から発射されました。ギリシャを除いて、すべてのNATO加盟国はある程度関与していた。紛争の10週間にわたって、NATO航空機は38,000を超える戦闘任務を飛行しました。以下のためにドイツ空軍ドイツ空軍)、それは後に、第二次世界大戦以降の紛争に参加した二度目だったボスニア戦争

NATO作戦の宣言された目標は、そのスポークスマンによって「セルビア人が出て、平和維持軍が入って、難民が戻ってきた」と要約された。つまり、ユーゴスラビア軍は、アルバニア難民が彼らの家に戻ることができることを確実にするために、コソボを去り、国際平和維持軍に取って代わられなければならないでしょう。このキャンペーンは当初、ユーゴスラビアの防空と価値の高い軍事目標を破壊することを目的としていました。最初はうまくいきませんでした。悪天候のため、早い段階で多くの出撃が妨げられました。 NATOは、ミロシェビッチの抵抗する意志を真剣に過小評価していました。ブリュッセルでは、キャンペーンが数日以上続くと考えた人はほとんどいませんでした。最初の爆撃は重要ではありませんでしたが、1991年のバグダッド爆撃の強度とは一致しませんでした。

NATOの軍事作戦は、地上のユーゴスラビア部隊を攻撃することにますます切り替わり、個々の戦車や砲兵のような小さな標的を攻撃し、戦略爆撃を続けました。各ターゲットは19の加盟国すべてによって承認される必要があるため、この活動は政治によって大きく制約されていました。モンテネグロは何度か爆撃されましたが、NATOは最終的に、反ミロシェビッチの指導者であるミロ・ジュカノビッチの不安定な立場を支持することをやめました

セルビアのSremskaMitrovica兵器保管庫のストライキ後の損傷評価

5月の初め、NATOの航空機がアルバニアの難民護送船団を攻撃し、ユーゴスラビア軍の護送船団であると信じて、約50人を殺害した。 NATOは5日後にその過ちを認め、ユーゴスラビア人はNATOが難民を故意に攻撃したと非難した。[要出典]旧ユーゴスラビア国際刑事裁判所(ICTY)が実施した後の報告では、「この事件で民間人は故意に攻撃されなかった」、「乗組員もその指揮官も、刑事責任を問われるような予防措置を講じる」と述べた。[153] 5月7日、NATO爆弾がベオグラードの中国大使館を襲った。、3人の中国人ジャーナリストを殺害し、中国の世論を憤慨させた。米国とNATOは後に爆撃について謝罪し、CIAによって提供された古い地図が原因で発生したと述べたが、これはオブザーバー(英国)とポリティケンデンマーク)の新聞から共同報告によって異議を唱えられた[154]。 NATOは、ユーゴスラビア軍の無線信号の中継局として使用されていたため、意図的に大使館を爆撃したと主張した。新聞による報告は、標的位置の失敗の根源は「諜報員によって採用された陸上航行技術に起因するように見える」と述べICTYによる同じ報告の発見と矛盾している[155] 1999年5月にコソボドゥブラバ刑務所起こった別の事件では、NATOがこの地域でのセルビアとユーゴスラビアの軍事活動を引用した後、ユーゴスラビア政府は施設へのNATO爆撃により95人もの民間人が死亡したと述べた。[156]ヒューマン・ライツ・ウォッチの報告書は、後に少なくとも19人のアルバニア系囚人が爆撃によって殺されたが、不確実な数ということされていたと結論-おそらく70以上が-すぐに爆撃を次の日にセルビア政府軍によって殺害されました。[156]

中に煙ノヴィ・サドNATO爆撃の後

4月の初めまでに、紛争は解決に少し近づいたように見え、NATO諸国はコソボでの地上作戦の実施を真剣に検討し始めました。英国のブレア首相は地上部隊の強力な支持者であり、米国に同意するよう圧力をかけた。彼の強い姿勢は、米軍があらゆる攻撃に最大の貢献をすることになるので、ワシントンでいくらかの警戒を引き起こした。[157]ビル・クリントン米大統領は、地上攻撃のために米軍を投入することに非常に消極的だった。代わりに、クリントンは、KLA軍を訓練せずにユーゴスラビア政府を不安定にする方法を調査するためにCIAの作戦を承認した[158]同時に、フィンランド語ロシア語外交交渉担当者は、ミロシェビッチに後退するよう説得しようとし続けた。トニー・ブレアは、5万人のイギリス兵に地上攻撃の準備をするように命じました利用可能なイギリス軍のほとんどです[157]

ミロシェビッチはついに、モスクワの強力な反NATOのレトリックにもかかわらず、ロシアがユーゴスラビアを守るために介入しないことを認めた。したがって、彼はフィンランドとロシアの調停チームによって提供された条件を受け入れ、国連が率いるコソボ内の軍事的存在に同意したが、NATO軍を組み込んだ。

ノルウェーの特殊部隊HærensJegerkommandoForsvaretsSpesialkommandoは、KLAと協力して諜報情報を収集しました。 6月12日の侵攻に備えて、ノルウェーの特殊部隊はマケドニアとコソボの国境にあるラムノ山のKLAと協力し、コソボでの出来事を監視するための偵察隊として行動しました。イギリスの特殊部隊と共に、ノルウェーの特殊部隊が国境を越えてコソボに最初に侵入した。テレビネットワークSkyNewsのKeithGravesによると、ノルウェー人は他の部隊が入る2日前にコソボにいて、プリシュティナに最初に侵入した人の1人でした。[159]HærensJegerkommandoとForsvaretsSpesialkommandoの仕事は、対立する政党間の道を切り開き、セルビア人とコソボアルバニア人の間の和平協定を実施するための地元の協定を結ぶことでした。[160] [161]

ユーゴスラビア軍の撤退とKFORの参入

1999年6月3日、ミロシェビッチは戦闘を終わらせるための国際平和計画の条件を受け入れ、国会は、ある時点で代表団が争いに近づくという論争の的となった議論の中で提案を採択した。[162] [163] 6月10日、北大西洋理事会は協定を批准し、航空作戦を停止した。[164]

1999年6月28日、米海兵隊は地元のアルバニアの子供たちとゼグラのメインストリートを行進します。

6月12日、ミロシェビッチが条件を受け入れた後、3万人の兵士からなるNATO主導の平和維持 コソボ軍(KFOR)がコソボに侵入し始めた。KFORは戦闘作戦を実施する準備をしていたが、結局、その使命は平和維持のみであった。力はに基づいていた連合軍の迅速な反応隊、その後中将によって命じ本社マイク・ジャクソンイギリスの軍隊それはイギリス軍(第4装甲旅団と第5空挺旅団から作られた旅団)、フランス陸軍旅団、西から入っドイツ陸軍旅団、そして南から進んだ他の軍隊、そしてイタリア陸軍アメリカ陸軍で構成されていた。 旅団。

1999年6月12日にプリシュティナに最初に侵入したNATO軍はForsvarets Spesialkommando(FSK)のノルウェー特殊部隊と、英国特殊空挺部隊22連隊の兵士でしたが、NATOの外交上の恥ずかしさにロシア軍が最初に空港に到着しました。ノルウェーの兵士が空港でロシア軍と最初に接触した。 FSKの使命は、交戦団体間の交渉の場を平準化し、セルビア人とコソボアルバニア人の間の和平協定を実施するために必要な詳細な現地協定を微調整することでした。[165] [166] [167] [168]

初期入隊部隊として知られる米国の貢献は、ピーターソン准将が指揮する第1機甲師団が主導し、イギリス軍に所属する第505パラシュート歩兵連隊の第2大隊の小隊が先頭に立った。他のユニットに含ま第一及び第二の大隊第十特殊部隊グループ(空挺)からシュトゥットガルトドイツフォートカーソンコロラド州から、TF 1-6歩兵(C株1-35ARと1-6歩兵)バウムホルダー、ドイツ、第二以下からの大隊、第五百五パラシュート歩兵連隊フォートブラッグノースカロライナ26th Marine Expeditionary Unit from Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment from Schweinfurt, Germany, and Echo Troop, 4th Cavalry Regiment, also from Schweinfurt, Germany. Also attached to the US force was the Greek Army's 501st Mechanised Infantry Battalion. The initial US forces established their area of operation around the towns of Uroševac, the future Camp Bondsteel, and Gnjilane, at Camp Monteith, and spent four months—the start of a stay which continues to date—establishing order in the southeast sector of Kosovo.

1999年7月26日、米兵は自動兵器を発見した後、セルビアの民間人をZitinjeの自宅から護衛しました。

最初の侵入の間、米兵とKFORが彼らの村を転がりながら、米兵はアルバニア人が歓声を上げて花を投げることによって迎えられました。抵抗はありませんでしたが、初期入隊部隊の3人の米兵が事故で死亡しました。[169]

1999年10月1日イタリアのヴィチェンツァにある第508空挺大隊戦闘チームであるAlpha Companyの約150人の落下傘兵が、ラピッドガーディアン作戦の一環としてウロシェヴァクにパラシュートで降下しました。任務の目的は、主にユーゴスラビア大統領スロボダン・ミロシェビッチにNATOの決意とその迅速な軍事力について警告することでした。 1人の米兵、陸軍レンジャー部隊。ジェイソン・ニール・プリングルは、パラシュートの展開に失敗した後、作戦中に殺害されました。その後、1/508の空挺部隊は、1999年10月3日まで、コソボのさまざまな地域を無事に巡視するために、第82空挺師団とKFORの空挺部隊に加わりました

1999年12月15日、第3大隊/第10特殊部隊グループ(空挺部隊)のジョセフ・スポンチッチ軍曹が、彼が乗客だったHMMWVアルバニア人によって植えられ、SSGが所属するロシアの派遣団のために設置された対戦車地雷に衝突したときに殺害されました。SuponcicのチームはKosovskaKamenicaをパトロールしていました

2000年1月9日、アルバニアのビティナ住民が路上で抗議している間、米兵は群衆の支配を維持している

軍事作戦に続いて、ロシアの平和維持軍の関与は緊張し、NATOコソボ軍にとって挑戦的であることが証明された。ロシア人はコソボの独立した部門を持つことを期待していましたが、NATOの指揮下で活動するという見通しに不幸にも驚いていました。 NATOとの事前の連絡や調整なしに、ロシアの平和維持軍はボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナからコソボに入り、NATO軍の到着に先立ってプリシュティナ国際空港を占領した。その結果、NATO最高司令官ウェズリークラークがロシア軍の援軍を防ぐためにNATO車両で滑走路を強制的に封鎖したいという希望が、KFOR司令官マイクジャクソンによって拒否されたという事件が発生しました[170]

2010年、ジェームスブラントはインタビューで、3万人の強力な平和維持軍の前進中にプリシュティナを確保する任務が彼の部隊に与えられた方法と、部隊が 到着する前にロシア軍が都市の空港に移動して支配した方法について説明しました。ブラントは、潜在的に暴力的な国際事件に対処するという困難な課題の一部を共有しました。ブラントの説明によると、ロシア人との対立があり、NATO最高司令官クラークは彼らを圧倒するための暫定命令を出しました。これらはブラントによって質問されたが、ジャクソン将軍によって拒否され、今では有名な「私は兵士に第三次世界大戦の開始に責任を負わせていない」と述べた。[171]

2000年6月、ロシアとユーゴスラビアの間の武器取引関係が暴露され、ロシアの検問所と地域の警察署への報復と爆撃が発生しました。前哨基地ガンナーは、ロシアのセクターでの平和維持活動を監視し支援することを目的として、エコーバッテリー1/161野戦砲によってプレシェヴォ渓谷の高い地点に設立されました。バッテリーは、第1機甲師団の⅔野戦砲の支援の下で運用され、Firefinder Radarシステムの展開と継続的な運用に成功しました。これにより、NATO軍はセクターとプレシェヴォ渓谷での活動を注意深く監視することができました。最終的には、ロシア軍がKFORのユニットとして機能するが、NATOの指揮体制下では機能しないという合意が成立した。[172]

戦争への反応

国の制限的なメディア法のために、ユーゴスラビアのメディアはコソボでの出来事とそこで起こっていた人道的災害に対する他の国の態度についてほとんど報道しませんでした。したがって、ユーゴスラビア国民のほとんどのメンバーは、代わりに外交合意に達するだろうと考えて、NATOの介入を期待していました。[173]

戦争への支援

Support for the Kosovan War and, in particular, the legitimacy of NATO's bombing campaign came from a variety of sources. In a 2009 article, David Clark claimed "Every member of NATO, every EU country, and most of Yugoslavia's neighbours, supported military action."[174] Statements from the leaders of United States, Czech Republic and United Kingdom, respectively, described the war as one "upholding our values, protecting our interests, and advancing the cause of peace",[175] "the first war for values"[174] and one "to avert what would otherwise be a humanitarian disaster in Kosovo."[176] Others included the then UN Secretary General Kofi Annan who was reported by some sources as acknowledging that the NATO action was legitimate[177] who emphasised that there were times when the use of force was legitimate in the pursuit of peace[178] though Annan stressed that the "[UN Security] Council should have been involved in any decision to use force."[178] The distinction between the legality and legitimacy of the intervention was further highlighted in two separate reports. One was conducted by the Independent International Commission on Kosovo, entitled The Kosovo Report,[179] which found that:

[ユーゴスラビア]軍は、コソボのアルバニア人のテロと追放のよく計画されたキャンペーンに従事していました。このキャンペーンは、すべてではないにしても多くのコソボ系アルバニア人をコソボから追い出し、社会の基盤を破壊し、彼らが戻るのを防ぐことを目的とした「民族浄化」の1つとして最も頻繁に説明されています。

「NATOの軍事介入は違法であるが合法である」と結論付けた[180]。2番目の報告はNATO情報報道局[181]によって発表され、「コソボで大規模に犯された人権侵害はNATOの介入の人権的側面に関して争うことのできない根拠。」[182]一部の批評家は、NATOが国連安全保障理事会の支持を得ていなかったため、その介入には法的根拠がなかったと指摘しているが、一部の法学者によれば、「それにもかかわらず、その行動には合法ではない特定の根拠があるが、正当化された。」[177]

1999年のコソボアルバニア難民

Aside from politicians and diplomats, commentators and intellectuals also supported the war. Michael Ignatieff called NATOs intervention a "morally justifiable response to ethnic cleansing and the resulting flood of refugees, and not the cause of the flood of refugees"[183] while Christopher Hitchens said NATO intervened only, "when Serbian forces had resorted to mass deportation and full-dress ethnic "cleansing."[184] Writing in The Nation, Richard A. Falk wrote that, "the NATO campaign achieved the removal of Yugoslav military forces from Kosovo and, even more significant, the departure of the dreaded Serbian paramilitary units and police"[185] while an article in The Guardian wrote that for Mary Kaldor, Kosovo represented a laboratory on her thinking for human security, humanitarian intervention and international peacekeeping, the latter two which she defined as, "a genuine belief in the equality of all human beings; and this entails a readiness to risk lives of peacekeeping troops to save the lives of others where this is necessary."[186] Reports stated there had been no peace between Albanians and Serbs, citing the deaths of 1,500 Albanians and displacement of 270,000 prior to NATO intervention.[174]

Criticism of the case for war

The NATO intervention has been seen as a political diversionary tactic, coming as it did on the heels of the Monica Lewinsky scandal, pointing to the fact that coverage of the bombing directly replaced coverage of the scandal in US news cycles.[187] Herbert Foerstel points out that before the bombing, rather than there being an unusually bloody conflict, the KLA was not engaged in a widespread war against Yugoslav forces and the death toll among all concerned (including ethnic Albanians) skyrocketed following NATO intervention.[187] In a post-war report released by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the organization also noted "the pattern of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24".[188]

US President Clinton, his administration and NATO governments were accused of inflating the number of Kosovo Albanians killed by state forces.[189][190] The conservative[191] media watchdog group Accuracy in Media charged the alliance with distorting the situation in Kosovo and lying about the number of civilian deaths in order to justify U.S. involvement in the conflict.[192]

After the bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Chinese President Jiang Zemin said that the US was using its economic and military superiority to aggressively expand its influence and interfere in the internal affairs of other countries. Chinese leaders called the NATO campaign a dangerous precedent of naked aggression, a new form of colonialism, and an aggressive war groundless in morality or law. It was seen as part of a plot by the US to destroy Yugoslavia, expand eastward and control all of Europe.[193]

The United Nations Charter does not allow military interventions in other sovereign countries with few exceptions which, in general, need to be decided upon by the United Nations Security Council; this legal enjoinment has proved controversial with many[177][179][180] legal scholars who argue that though the Kosovo War was illegal, it was still legitimate. The issue was brought before the UN Security Council by Russia, in a draft resolution which, inter alia, would affirm "that such unilateral use of force constitutes a flagrant violation of the United Nations Charter". China, Namibia, and Russia voted for the resolution, the other members against, thus it failed to pass.[194]

The war inflicted many casualties. Already by March 1999, the combination of fighting and the targeting of civilians had left an estimated 1,500–2,000 civilians and combatants dead.[195] However, estimates showed that prior to the bombing campaign on 24 March 1999, approximately 1,800 civilians had been killed in the Kosovo war, mostly Albanians but also Serbs and that there had been no evidence of genocide or ethnic cleansing.[196] By November 1999, 2,108 victims had been exhumed from the province with a total approaching 3,000 expected, but it was unclear how many were civilians and combatants, while the number was also far from the 10,000 minimum civilian death figure cited by Western officials.[197] Final estimates of the casualties are still unavailable for either side.

Perhaps the most controversial deliberate attack of the war was that made against the headquarters of RTS, Serbian public radio and television, on 23 April 1999, which killed at least fourteen people.[198]

Privately NATO European members were divided about the aims and necessity of the war.[199] Most European allies did not trust the motives of Kosovan Albanians and according to NATO General Wesley Clark, "There was a sense among some that NATO was fighting on the wrong side" in a war between Christians and Muslims.[199]

Democratic League of Kosovo and FARK

The Democratic League of Kosovo (DLK) led by Ibrahim Rugova had been the leading political entity in Kosovo since its creation in 1989. Its parallel government in exile was led by Bujar Bukoshi, and its Minister of Defence until 1998 was the former Yugoslav colonel Ahmet Krasniqi.[200] DLK politicians opposed the armed conflict and were not ready to accept KLA as a political factor in the region and tried to persuade the population not to support it.[201] At one point Rugova even claimed that it was set up by Serbian intelligence as an excuse to invade,[202] or to discredit DLK itself.[203] Nevertheless, the support for KLA even within DLK membership and specifically in the diaspora grew, together with the dissatisfaction with and antagonism toward DLK.[204] KLA initial personnel were members or former members of the DLK.[203][205] With the changes of the international stance towards KLA and its recognition as a factor in the conflict, DLK's position also shifted. The Armed Forces of the Republic of Kosovo, known as FARK, were established in order to place DLK as a military factor in addition to a political one. A parallel paramilitary structure such as FARK was not received well by the KLA.

On 21 September 1998 Ahmet Krasniqi was shot in Tirana.[206] Those responsible were not found, although several theories emerged. The Democratic Party of Albania and its leader Sali Berisha, strong supporters of DLK and FARK, accused SHIK and the Albanian government, which was supporting the KLA,[207] as the responsible parties.[206] FARK was never a determining factor in the war and was not involved in any battles. It did not number more than few hundred men, and it did not show any commitment to fighting the Serbs, accepting a broader autonomy as a solution rather than independence.[206] Some of the FARK officers were incorporated later under the KLA umbrella.[208] Besides FARK, DLK would also politically and diplomatically oppose KLA and their methods. In a meeting with US President Clinton on 29 May 1999,[209] Rugova, accompanied by Fehmi Agani, Bukoshi, and Veton Surroi, accused KLA of being a left-wing ideology bearer, and some of its leaders as being "nostalgic to known communist figures, such as Enver Hoxha",[210] referring to the People's Movement of Kosovo (LPK) nucleus of KLA,[211] an old underground rival with strong left-wing orientation.[212][213]

Rugova was present at the negotiations held in Rambouillet and supported the Rambouillet Agreement since the first round, but without any influence.[214] Following the ethnic cleansing of the Albanian population, there was close to a total Albanian support for the NATO campaign, including the DLK side. Surprisingly, Ibrahim Rugova showed up in Belgrade as a guest of Milosevic. At a joint TV appearance on 1 April,[215] ending in a Rugova-Milosevic handshake, Rugova asked for a peaceful solution and the bombings to stop.[216][217] In the same conference, Millosevic presented his proposal for Kosovo as part of a three-unit federal Yugoslavian state. Rugova's presence in Belgrade scattered another set of accusations from KLA and its supporters. Besides being 'passive' and 'too peaceful', Rugova and DLK were accused as 'traitors'.[218] Following Rugova's passage to Italy on 5 May, Rugova claimed that he had been under duress and any "agreement" with Milosovic had no meaning.[215] The general opinion expected the DLK structures and its leader to vanish from the political scene of Kosovo after the Yugoslav withdrawal. Rugova himself stayed out of Kosovo for several weeks, while the prime-minister Bukoshi and other leading membership returned. With only a fraction of Kosovo Albanians participating actively in the war, the support for DLK increased again as a way of opposing the arrogance of many KLA leaders who openly engaged in controlling the economical and political life within the vacuum created right before the deployment of UNMIK.[219] In the October 2000 local elections, DLK was confirmed as the leading political party.[220]

The feud between KLA and DLK continued in the post-war Kosovo. Many political activists of DLK were assassinated and the perpetrators not found, including Xhemajl Mustafa, Rugova's most trusted aide.[220]

Casualties

Civilian losses

In June 2000, the Red Cross reported that 3,368 civilians (mainly Kosovar Albanians, but with several hundred Serbs, and Roma) were still missing, nearly one year after the conflict, most of whom it concluded had to be 'presumed dead'.[221]

A study by researchers from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, Georgia published in 2000 in medical journal the Lancet estimated that "12,000 deaths in the total population" could be attributed to war.[222] This number was achieved by surveying 1,197 households from February 1998 through June 1999. 67 out of the 105 deaths reported in the sample population were attributed to war-related trauma, which extrapolates to be 12,000 deaths if the same war-related mortality rate is applied to Kosovo's total population. The highest mortality rates were in men between 15 and 49 (5,421 victims of war) as well as for men over 50 (5,176 victims). For persons younger than 15, the estimates were 160 victims for males and 200 for females.[citation needed] For women between 15 and 49 the estimate is that there were 510 victims; older than 50 years the estimate is 541 victims. The authors stated that it was not "possible to differentiate completely between civilian and military casualties".

In the 2008 joint study by the Humanitarian Law Centre (an NGO from Serbia and Kosovo), The International Commission on Missing Persons, and the Missing Person Commission of Serbia made a name-by-name list of war and post-war victims. According to the updated 2015 Kosovo Memory Book, 13,535 people were killed or missing due to the Kosovo conflict, from 1 January 1998 up until December 2000. Of these, 10,812 were Albanians, 2,197 Serbs and 526 Roma, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and others. 10,317 civilians were killed or went missing, of whom 8,676 were Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma and others. The remaining 3,218 dead or missing were combatants, including 2,131 members of the KLA and FARK, 1,084 members of Serbian forces and 3 members of KFOR.[21] As of 2019, the book had been updated to a total of 13,548.[38] In August 2017, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights reported that between 1998 and 1999, more than 6,000 people had gone missing in Kosovo, and that 1,658 remained missing, with neither the person nor the body having, at that time, been found.[223]

Civilians killed by NATO airstrikes

Railway bridge and monument to civilian victims of NATO airstrike in 1999. on passenger train. 12 to 16 civilian passengers died in this airstrike.

Yugoslavia claimed that NATO attacks caused between 1,200 and 5,700 civilian casualties. NATO's Secretary General, Lord Robertson, wrote after the war that "the actual toll in human lives will never be precisely known" but he then offered the figures found in a report by Human Rights Watch as a reasonable estimate. This report counted between 488 and 527 civilian deaths (90 to 150 of them killed from cluster bomb use) in 90 separate incidents, the worst of which were the 87 Albanian refugees who perished at the hands of NATO bombs, near Koriša.[224] Attacks in Kosovo overall were more deadly due to the confused situation with many refugee movements—the one-third of the incidents there account for more than half of the deaths.[225]

Civilians killed by Yugoslav forces

Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers investigate an alleged mass grave, alongside US Marines

Various estimates of the number of killings attributed to Yugoslav forces have been announced through the years. An estimated 800,000 Kosovo Albanians fled and an estimated 7,000 to 9,000 were killed, according to The New York Times.[226] The estimate of 10,000 deaths is used by the US Department of State, which cited human rights abuses as its main justification for attacking Yugoslavia.[227]

Statistical experts working on behalf of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) prosecution estimate that the total number of dead is about 10,000.[228] Eric Fruits, a professor at Portland State University, argued that the experts' analyses were based on fundamentally flawed data and that none of its conclusions are supported by any valid statistical analysis or tests.[229]

In August 2000, the ICTY announced that it had exhumed 2,788 bodies in Kosovo, but declined to say how many were thought to be victims of war crimes.[230] KFOR sources told Agence France Presse that of the 2,150 bodies that had been discovered up until July 1999, about 850 were thought to be victims of war crimes.[231][page needed][dead link]

In an attempt to conceal the corpses of the victims, Yugoslav forces transported the bodies of murdered Albanians deep inside Serbia and buried them in mass graves.[232] According to HLC, many of the bodies were taken to the Mačkatica Aluminium Complex near Surdulica and the Copper Mining And Smelting Complex in Bor, where they were incinerated. There are reports that some bodies of Albanian victims were also burned in the Feronikli plant in Glogovac.[233][234]

Known mass graves:

  • In 2001, 800 still unidentified bodies were found in pits on a police training ground just outside Belgrade and in eastern Serbia.
  • At least 700 bodies were uncovered in a mass grave located within a special anti-terrorist police unit's compound in the Belgrade suburb of Batajnica.
  • 77 bodies were found in the eastern Serbian town of Petrovo Selo.
  • 50 bodies were uncovered near the western Serbian town of Peručac.[235]
  • A mass grave believed to contain 250 bodies of Albanians killed in the war has been found under a car park in Rudnica near Raška.[236][237]
  • At least 2 bodies, as well as part of the remains of a third body previously found in Rudnica have been found near a mine in the village of Kizevak in southern Serbia. The operation of recovering the bodies is still ongoing.[238]

Civilians killed by KLA forces

The KLA abducted and murdered Serbian, Roma, and moderate Albanian civilians during and after the war.[239] The exact number of civilians killed by the KLA is not known, though estimates conducted in the initial post-war months listed several hundreds[240][241] with the violence targeting the non-Albanian population intensifying in the immediate aftermath of KFOR deployment in the region.[69] Although more than 2,500 non-Albanians are believed to have been killed in the period between 1 January 1998 and 31 December 2000, it is unclear how many of them were killed by the KLA or KLA affiliated groups.[38][better source needed]

NATO losses

A downed F-16C pilot's flight equipment belonging to Lt. Colonel David L. Goldfein and part of the F-117A shot down over Serbia in 1999 on show at a Belgrade museum.

Military casualties on the NATO side were light. According to official reports, the alliance suffered no fatalities as a direct result of combat operations. In the early hours of 5 May, a US military AH-64 Apache helicopter crashed not far from the border between Serbia and Albania.[242]

Another US AH-64 helicopter crashed about 40 miles (64 km) northeast of Tirana, Albania's capital, very close to the Albanian/Kosovo border.[243] According to CNN, the crash happened 45 miles (72 km) northeast of Tirana.[244] The two US pilots of the helicopter, Army Chief Warrant Officers David Gibbs and Kevin L. Reichert, died in that crash. They were the only NATO fatalities during the war, according to NATO official statements.

There were other casualties after the war, mostly due to land mines. During the war, the alliance reported the loss of the first US stealth aeroplane (an F-117 Nighthawk) ever shot down by enemy fire.[245] Furthermore, an F-16 fighter was lost near Šabac and 32 unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from different nations were lost.[246] The wreckages of downed UAVs were shown on Serbian television during the war. Some US sources claim a second F-117A was also heavily damaged, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again.[247][248] A-10 Thunderbolts have been reported as losses, with two shot down[26] and another two damaged.[26] Three US soldiers riding a Humvee in a routine patrol were captured by Yugoslav special forces across the Macedonian border.[23][249]

Yugoslav military losses

Destroyed tank near Prizren

At first, NATO claimed to have killed 10,000 Yugoslav troops, while Yugoslavia claimed only 500; the NATO investigative teams later corrected it to a few hundred Yugoslav troops killed by air strikes.[250] In 2001, the Yugoslav authorities claimed 462 soldiers were killed and 299 wounded by NATO airstrikes.[251] Later, in 2013, Serbia claimed that 1,008 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen had been killed by NATO bombing.[30] NATO initially[when?] claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav servicemen had been killed and 10,000 had been wounded during the NATO air campaign.[32][33] NATO has since[when?] revised this estimate to 1,200 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen killed.[34]

Wreckage of Yugoslav MiG-29 jet fighter shot down on 27 March 1999, outside the town of Ugljevik, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Of military equipment, NATO destroyed around 50 Yugoslav Air Force aircraft including 6 MiG-29s destroyed in air-to-air combat. A number of G-4 Super Galebs were destroyed in their hardened aircraft shelter by bunker-busting bombs which started a fire which spread quickly because the shelter doors were not closed. At the end of war, NATO officially claimed that they had destroyed 93 Yugoslav tanks. Yugoslavia admitted a total of 3 destroyed tanks. The latter figure was verified by European inspectors when Yugoslavia rejoined the Dayton accords, by noting the difference between the number of tanks then and at the last inspection in 1995.[citation needed] NATO claimed that the Yugoslav army lost 93 tanks (M-84's and T-55's), 132 APCs, and 52 artillery pieces.[252] Newsweek, the second-largest news weekly magazine in the U.S, gained access to a suppressed US Air Force report that claimed the real numbers were "3 tanks, not 120; 18 armored personnel carriers, not 220; 20 artillery pieces, not 450".[252][253] Another US Air Force report gives a figure of 14 tanks destroyed.[35] Most of the targets hit in Kosovo were decoys, such as tanks made out of plastic sheets with telegraph poles for gun barrels, or old World War II–era tanks which were not functional. Anti-aircraft defences were preserved by the simple expedient of not turning them on, preventing NATO aircraft from detecting them, but forcing them to keep above a ceiling of 15,000 feet (4,600 metres), making accurate bombing much more difficult. Towards the end of the war, it was claimed that carpet bombing by B-52 aircraft had caused huge casualties among Yugoslav troops stationed along the Kosovo–Albania border. Careful searching by NATO investigators found no evidence of any such large-scale casualties.

The most significant loss for the Yugoslav Army was the damaged and destroyed infrastructure. Almost all military air bases and airfields (Batajnica, Lađevci, Slatina, Golubovci and Đakovica) and other military buildings and facilities were badly damaged or destroyed. Unlike the units and their equipment, military buildings could not be camouflaged. thus, defence industry and military technical overhaul facilities were also seriously damaged (Utva, Zastava Arms factory, Moma Stanojlović air force overhaul centre, technical overhaul centres in Čačak and Kragujevac). In an effort to weaken the Yugoslav Army, NATO targeted several important civilian facilities (the Pančevo oil refinery,[254] Novi Sad oil refinery, bridges, TV antennas, railroads, etc.)

KLA losses

Around 1,500 Kosovo Liberation Army soldiers were killed, according to KLA's own estimates.[20] HLC registered 2,131 KLA and FARK insurgents killed in its comprehensive database.[21]

Aftermath

Refugee camp in Fier, Albania

The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[67] to 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[68] After the end of the war in June 1999, numerous Albanian refugees started returning home from neighboring countries. By November 1999, according to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, 848,100 out of 1,108,913 had returned.[255][self-published source?]

According to the 1991 Yugoslavia Census, of the nearly 2 million population of Kosovo in 1991, 194,190 were Serbs, 45,745 were Romani and 20,356 were Montenegrins.[256] According to the Human Rights Watch, 200,000 Serbs and thousands of Roma fled from Kosovo during and after the war.[257] A 2001 Human Rights Watch's report suggested that the removal of ethnic minorities in Kosovo was done in order to better justify an independent state, and there were over 1000 reports of beatings and torturing of minorities in Kosovo by ethnic Albanians in 2000 after the war finished.[258] Homes of minorities were burned and Orthodox churches and monasteries were destroyed in the immediate aftermath of KFOR's arrival in Kosovo.[258] Attackers combined this destruction with killings, harassment and intimidation designed to force people from their homes and communities.[258] The Yugoslav Red Cross had also registered 247,391 mostly Serbian refugees by November[when?]. More than 164,000 Serbs left Kosovo during the seven weeks which followed Yugoslav and Serb forces' withdrawal from, and the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) entering Kosovo.[259]

Further inter-ethnic violence took place in 2000, and 2004.

War crimes

By the Federal Yugoslav government

Vlastimir Đorđević, former Serb colonel general, at the ICTY

For the government of Serbia, cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia is "still regarded as a distressing obligation, the necessary price for joining the European Union".[260] Religious objects were damaged or destroyed. Of the 498 mosques in Kosovo that were in active use, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) documented that 225 mosques sustained damage or destruction by the Yugoslav Serb army.[261] In all, eighteen months of the Yugoslav Serb counterinsurgency campaign between 1998 and 1999 within Kosovo resulted in 225 or a third out of a total of 600 mosques being damaged, vandalised, or destroyed.[262][263] During the war, Islamic architectural heritage posed for Yugoslav Serb paramilitary and military forces as Albanian patrimony with destruction of non-Serbian architectural heritage being a methodical and planned component of ethnic cleansing in Kosovo.[263][264]

Widespread rape and sexual violence by the Serbian army, police and paramilitaries occurred during the conflict and the majority of victims were Kosovo Albanian women,[265][266] numbering an estimated 20,000.[267] The crimes of rape by the Serb military, paramilitary and police amounted to crimes against humanity and a war crime of torture.[265]

Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević was charged by the UN's International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) with crimes against humanity and war crimes. In 2001, then-President Vojislav Koštunica "fought tooth and nail" against attempts to put Milošević before an international court but was unable to prevent this happening after further atrocities were revealed.[268]

By 2014, the ICTY issued final verdicts against the indicted Yugoslav officials who were found guilty of deportation, other inhumane acts (forcible transfer), murder and persecutions (crimes against humanity, Article 5), as well as murder (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3):

The ICTY legally found that:

...FRY and Serbian forces use[d] violence and terror to force a significant number of Kosovo Albanians from their homes and across the borders, in order for the state authorities to maintain control over Kosovo ... This campaign was conducted by army and Interior Ministry police forces (MUP) under the control of FRY and Serbian authorities, who were responsible for mass expulsions of Kosovo Albanian civilians from their homes, as well as incidents of killings, sexual assault, and the intentional destruction of mosques.[271]

By Kosovo Albanian forces

Monument to Serbian victims of Kosovo War in Mitrovica

The ICTY also leveled indictments against KLA members Fatmir Limaj, Haradin Bala, Isak Musliu, and Agim Murtezi for crimes against humanity. They were arrested on 17 and 18 February 2003. Charges were soon dropped against Agim Murtezi as a case of mistaken identity and Fatmir Limaj was acquitted of all charges on 30 November 2005 and released. The charges were in relation to the prison camp run by the defendants at Lapušnik between May and July 1998.

In 2008, Carla Del Ponte published a book in which she alleged that, after the end of the war in 1999, Kosovo Albanians were smuggling organs of between 100 and 300 Serbs and other minorities from the province to Albania.[272]

In March 2005, a UN tribunal indicted Kosovo Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj for war crimes against the Serbs. On 8 March, he tendered his resignation. Haradinaj, an ethnic Albanian, was a former commander who led units of the Kosovo Liberation Army and was appointed Prime Minister after winning an election of 72 votes to three in the Kosovo's Parliament in December 2004. Haradinaj was acquitted on all counts along with fellow KLA veterans Idriz Balaj and Lahi Brahimaj. The Office of the Prosecutor appealed their acquittals, resulting in the ICTY ordering a partial retrial. On 29 November 2012 all three were acquitted for the second time on all charges.[273] The trials were rife with accusations of witness intimidation, as media outlets from several different countries wrote that as many as nineteen people who were supposed to be witnesses in the trial against Haradinaj were murdered (the ICTY disputed these reports).[274]

According to Human Rights Watch (HRW), "800 non-Albanian civilians were kidnapped and murdered from 1998 to 1999". After the war, "479 people have gone missing ... most of them Serbs".[275] Albanians accused of "collaboration" with Serbian authorities were also beaten, abducted, or killed, notably in the municipalities of Prizren, Djakovica, and Klina.[276] HRW notes that "the intent behind many of the killings and abductions that have occurred in the province since June 1999 appears to be the expulsion of Kosovo's Serb and Roma population rather than a desire for revenge alone. In numerous cases, direct and systematic efforts were made to force Serbs and Roma to leave their homes."[277] Some 200,000 Serbs and Roma fled Kosovo following the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces.[278]

In April 2014, the Assembly of Kosovo considered and approved the establishment of a special court to try cases involving crimes and other serious abuses committed in 1999-2000 by members of the KLA.[279] Reports of abuses and war crimes committed by the KLA during and after the conflict include massacres of civilians, prison camps, burning and looting of homes and destruction of medieval churches and monuments.[280]

Carla Del Ponte said that the US for political reasons, did not want the ICTY to scrutinise war crimes committed by the KLA. According to her, Madeleine Albright who was the Secretary of State at the time told her to proceed slowly with the investigation of Ramush Haradinaj to avoid unrest in Kosovo.[281]

By NATO forces

A monument to the children killed in the NATO bombing located in Tašmajdan Park, Belgrade, featuring a bronze sculpture of Milica Rakić

The Yugoslav government and a number of international pressure groups (e.g., Amnesty International) claimed that NATO had carried out war crimes during the conflict, notably the bombing of the Serbian TV headquarters in Belgrade on 23 April 1999, where 16 people were killed and 16 more were injured. Sian Jones of Amnesty stated, "The bombing of the headquarters of Serbian state radio and television was a deliberate attack on a civilian object and as such constitutes a war crime".[282] A later report conducted by the ICTY entitled Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia concluded that, "Insofar as the attack actually was aimed at disrupting the communications network, it was legally acceptable" and that, "NATO's targeting of the RTS building for propaganda purposes was an incidental (albeit complementary) aim of its primary goal of disabling the Serbian military command and control system and to destroy the nerve system and apparatus that keeps Milosević in power."[153] In regards to civilian casualties, it further stated that though they were, "unfortunately high, they do not appear to be clearly disproportionate."[153]

International reaction to NATO intervention

Africa

  • EgyptEgypt supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.[283]
  • Libyan Arab Jamahiriya – Libyan Jamahiriya leader, Muammar Gaddafi opposed the campaign and called on world leaders to support Yugoslavia's 'legitimate right to defend its freedoms and territorial integrity against a possible aggression.'[284]

Asia

  • CambodiaCambodia was against the campaign.[285]
  • ChinaChina deeply condemned the bombing, saying it was an act of aggression against the Yugoslav people, especially when NATO bombed its embassy in Belgrade on 7 May 1999, riots and mass demonstrations against the governments of the United States and Great Britain were reported against both the attack and the operation overall.[286] Jiang Zemin, the President of the country at the time, called 'once more' for an immediate halt to the airstrikes and demanded peaceful negotiations.[284]
  • IndiaIndia condemned the bombing.[285] The Indian foreign ministry also stated that it 'urged all military actions to be brought to a halt' and that 'FR Yugoslavia be enabled to resolve its internal issues internally.'[284]
  • IndonesiaIndonesia was against the campaign.[285]
  • IsraelIsrael did not support the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.[287] Ariel Sharon criticised NATO's bombing as an act of "brutal interventionism".[288] It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the Holocaust.[289]
  • JordanJordan supported NATO intervention in Kosovo and withdrew its ambassador from Belgrade.[283]
  • JapanJapan's PM Keizō Obuchi advocated the bombing, stating that Yugoslavia had an 'uncompromising attitude.'[285] Japan's foreign minister Masahiko Kōmura said that, 'Japan understands NATO's use of force as measures that had to be taken to prevent humanitarian catastrophe.'[284]
  • MalaysiaMalaysia supported the bombing, stating that it 'was necessary to prevent genocide in Kosovo.'[285]
  • PakistanPakistan's government was concerned about developing situations in Kosovo and called for UN intervention.[285]
  • United Arab EmiratesUnited Arab Emirates supported NATO intervention in Kosovo.[290] The UAE population gave financial aid, and set up and ran a refugee camp and built an airstrip for incoming relief supplies at Kukës in Northern Albania.[290]
  • VietnamVietnam was against the bombing campaign.[285]

Europe

  • Albania – Albania strongly supported the bombing campaign. This resulted in the breaking of diplomatic ties between Albania and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, who accused the Albanian government of harbouring KLA insurgents and supplying them with weapons.[291]
  • Turkey – The Turkish population, as a result of historical, cultural, and religious ties to the Balkans felt a responsibility to assist Kosovo Albanians by supporting their government's pro-NATO and anti-Serb position.[292] Turkey, a NATO member, supported and was involved in the bombing campaign though it expressed hesitation about a ground offensive.[292] The Turkish government stressed that NATO's involvement was not about undermining Yugoslav territorial integrity, but about reversing the genocidal policies of the Milošević government.[292]
  • Greece – Greece took no active part in the NATO campaign and 96% of the Greek population was opposed to the NATO bombings.[293][199]
  • France – In France, a combatant, the bulk of the population supported the action but factions on the far left and far right opposed it.[294] French officials felt aggrieved their traditional ally Serbia was subjected to military action by NATO.[199]
  • Federal Republic of YugoslaviaSlobodan Milošević, the president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia called the bombings, an 'unlawful act of terrorism' and the 'key to colonize Yugoslavia'. The Yugoslav population also strongly opposed the bombing and showed defiance with cultural-related themes. Milošević also stated that, 'the only correct decision that could have been made was the one to reject foreign troops on our territory.'[295] The Yugoslavs who opposed Milošević also opposed the bombing, saying that it 'supports Milošević rather than attacking him.'[citation needed]
  • Germany - Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder newly elected government supported the NATO campaign; German public opinion was not prepared for a prolonged campaign.[199]
  • Italy – The bombing was met with mixed reactions in Italy. Following former Prime Minister Romano Prodi's decision of authorising the use of Italian airbases and military infrastructures to the coalition forces, Massimo D'Alema's centre-left government authorised the country's participation in the air campaign.[296] The bombing was also supported by Silvio Berlusconi and the centre-right opposition.[297] Domestic opposition to the NATO bombing campaign against Serbia was strong.[199]
  • Russia – Russia strongly condemned the campaign. President Boris Yeltsin stated that, 'Russia is deeply upset by NATO's military action against sovereign Yugoslavia, which is nothing more than open aggression.'[284] They also condemned NATO at the United Nations saying that NATO air strikes on Serbia were 'an illegal action.'[298] Some Russians volunteered to go to Kosovo, not only to fight the KLA, but also to oppose NATO.[299]
  • United Kingdom – As a contributor to the bombing, the United Kingdom strongly supported the bombing campaign, as did a majority of the British population.[300]
  • Poland – The Polish government sanctioned NATO's activities but Poland did not participate in the operation[301] There were demonstrations in Warsaw against the bombing.[302]
  • Bulgaria – Bulgaria allowed its airspace to be used by NATO aircraft for attacks.[303] Despite Bulgaria's ambitions of joining both NATO and the European Union, the leftist opposition organised street protests in Sofia over the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the public was reportedly deeply divided because of sympathy for their fellow Slavs and Christian Orthodox Serb neighbours but also a desire to join the European Union and NATO.[304] Several NATO missiles and aircraft strayed off course into Bulgaria.[305]

Oceania

  • Australia – Australia supported the campaign. Prime Minister John Howard stated that, "history has told us that if you sit by and do nothing, you pay a much greater price later on."[306]

United Nations

  • United Nations – The United Nations had mixed reactions to the bombing, which was carried out without its authorisation.[307] Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary-General said, "It is indeed tragic that diplomacy has failed, but there are times when the use of force is legitimate in the pursuit of peace."[284]

Military and political consequences

Members of the Kosovo Liberation Army hand over their weapons to US Marines

The Kosovo War had a number of important consequences in terms of the military and political outcome. The status of Kosovo remains unresolved; international negotiations began in 2006 to determine Kosovo's level of autonomy as envisaged under UN Security Council Resolution 1244, but efforts failed. The province is administered by the United Nations despite its unilateral declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.

Seized uniform and equipment of US soldiers 1999 in Kosovo War

The UN-backed talks, led by UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari, had begun in February 2006. Whilst progress was made on technical matters, both parties remained diametrically opposed on the question of status itself.[308] In February 2007, Ahtisaari delivered a draft status settlement proposal to leaders in Belgrade and Pristina, the basis for a draft UN Security Council Resolution which proposes "supervised independence" for the province, which is in contrary to UN Security Council Resolution 1244. By July 2007, the draft resolution, which was backed by the United States, United Kingdom, and other European members of the Security Council, had been rewritten four times to try to accommodate Russian concerns that such a resolution would undermine the principle of state sovereignty.[309] Russia, which holds a veto in the Security Council as one of five permanent members, stated that it would not support any resolution which is not acceptable to both Belgrade and Priština.[310]

The campaign exposed significant weaknesses in the US arsenal, which were later addressed for the Afghanistan and Iraq campaigns. Apache attack helicopters and AC-130 Spectre gunships were brought up to the front lines but were never used after two Apaches crashed during training in the Albanian mountains. Stocks of many precision missiles were reduced to critically low levels. For combat aircraft, continuous operations resulted in skipped maintenance schedules, and many aircraft were withdrawn from service awaiting spare parts and service.[311] Also, many of the precision-guided weapons proved unable to cope with Balkan weather, as the clouds blocked the laser guidance beams. This was resolved by retrofitting bombs with Global Positioning System satellite guidance devices that are immune to bad weather. Although pilotless surveillance aircraft were extensively used, often attack aircraft could not be brought to the scene quickly enough to hit targets of opportunity. This led missiles being fitted to Predator drones in Afghanistan, reducing the "sensor to shooter" time to virtually zero.

Kosovo also showed that some low-tech tactics could reduce the impact of a high-tech force such as NATO; the Milošević government cooperated with Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist regime in Iraq, passing on many of the lessons learned in the Gulf War.[312] The Yugoslav army had long expected to need to resist a much stronger enemy, either Soviet or NATO, during the Cold War and had developed effective tactics of deception and concealment in response. These would have been unlikely to have resisted a full-scale invasion for long, but were probably used to mislead overflying aircraft and satellites. Among the tactics used were:

  • US stealth aeroplanes were tracked with radars operating on long wavelengths. If stealth jets got wet or opened their bomb bay doors, they would become visible on the radar screens. The downing of an F-117 Nighthawk by a missile was possibly spotted in this way.[313]
  • Dummy targets such as fake bridges, airfields and decoy aeroplanes and tanks were used extensively. Tanks were made using old tires, plastic sheeting and logs, and sand cans and fuel set alight to mimic heat emissions. They fooled NATO pilots into bombing hundreds of such decoys, though General Clark's survey found that in Operation: Allied Force, NATO airmen hit just 25 decoys—an insignificant percentage of the 974 validated hits.[314] NATO sources claim that this was due to operating procedures, which oblige troops, in this case aircraft, to engage any and all targets, however unlikely they may be. The targets needed only to look real to be shot at, if detected. NATO claimed that the Yugoslav air force had been devastated. "Official data show that the Yugoslav army in Kosovo lost 26 percent of its tanks, 34 percent of its APCs, and 47 percent of the artillery to the air campaign."[314]

Military decorations

As a result of the Kosovo War, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation created a second NATO medal, the NATO Medal for Kosovo Service, an international military decoration. Shortly thereafter, NATO created the Non-Article 5 Medal for Balkans service to combine both Yugoslavian and Kosovo operations into one service medal.[315]

Due to the involvement of the United States armed forces, a separate US military decoration, known as the Kosovo Campaign Medal, was established by President Bill Clinton in 2000.

The Kosovo Campaign Medal (KCM) is a military award of the United States Armed Forces established by Executive Order 13154 of President Bill Clinton on 3 May 2000. The medal recognises military service performed in Kosovo from 24 March 1999 through 31 December 2013.

Weaponry and vehicles used

A variety of weapons were used by the Yugoslav security forces and the Kosovo Liberation Army, NATO only operated aircraft and naval units during the conflict.

Yugoslav security forces

The weapons used by Yugoslav government were mostly Yugoslav made, while almost all of their AA units were Soviet made.

Kosovo Liberation Army

The weapons used by the Kosovo Liberation Army were mostly Soviet Kalashnikovs and Chinese derivatives of the AK-47 and some Western weaponry.

NATO

Gallery

See also

Notes

  1. ^ [8][9][10][11][12]
  2. ^ Serbia claims that 1,008 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen were killed by NATO bombing.[30][31] NATO initially claimed that 5,000 Yugoslav servicemen had been killed and 10,000 had been wounded during the NATO air campaign.[32][33] NATO has since revised this estimation to 1,200 Yugoslav soldiers and policemen killed.[34]
a.   ^ Kosovo is the subject of a territorial dispute between the Republic of Kosovo and the Republic of Serbia. The Republic of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence on 17 February 2008. Serbia continues to claim it as part of its own sovereign territory. The two governments began to normalise relations in 2013, as part of the 2013 Brussels Agreement. Kosovo is currently recognized as an independent state by 97 out of the 193 United Nations member states. In total, 112 UN member states have recognized Kosovo at some point, of which 15 later withdrew their recognition.

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  201. ^ Rexhep Qosja (1 January 1999). Paqja e përgjakshme: konferenca Ndërkombëtare për Kosovën, Rambuje 6-23. 2. 1999, Paris 14-19. 3. 1999. Botimet Toena. p. 195. ISBN 978-99927-1-217-7. e në anën tjetër propaganda e tmerrshme e disa partive, sidomos e udhëheqjeve të tyre, krejt e organizuar prej udhëheqjes së LDK-së! Jo vetëm se nuk jepeshin para për luftë, por bëheshin përpjekje, të hapta e të fshehta, për rrënimin e Ushtrisë Çlirimtare të Kosovës.
  202. ^ Thomas M. Leonard (2006). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Taylor & Francis. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-415-97662-6. ...and at one point Rugova claimed that it was set up by Serbia as an excuse to invade.
  203. ^ a b David L. Phillips; Nicholas Burns (20 July 2012). Liberating Kosovo: Coercive Diplomacy and U. S. Intervention. MIT Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-262-30512-9. He insisted that the KLA was "a creation of the Serb security forces". He was convinced that "the whole thing was a hoax orchestrated by Serb police to discredit the LDK"... Initial KLA supporters were disgruntled members of the LDK...Jakup Krasniqi, the KLA spokesman explains: "Everyone originally supported the LDK. I was an LDK member.
  204. ^ Robert J. Art; Patrick M. Cronin (2003). The United States and Coercive Diplomacy. US Institute of Peace Press. pp. 76–. ISBN 978-1-929223-45-9. By March 1998 "dissatisfaction" with and "antagonism" toward Rugova were evident in the actions of some prominent Kosovar Albanian political figures and in mass street demonstrations, leading one Albanian commentator for the local Helsinki Committee to conclude that "the bellogenrent option is gaining more followers, at the expense of the peaceful one.
  205. ^ Mike Karadjis (2000). Bosnia, Kosova & the West. Resistance Books. p. 178. ISBN 978-1-876646-05-9. ...the fact that so much of Rugova's LDK and members of the non-violent movement, long admired for their "moderation", had joined KLA...
  206. ^ a b c James Pettifer; Miranda Vickers (2007). The Albanian Question: Reshaping the Balkans. I.B.Tauris. pp. 166–168. ISBN 978-1-86064-974-5. Although never numbering more than a few hundred soldiers... In contrast, as far as the KLA were concerned, FARK had a dubious commitment to fighting the Serbs, and was content to settle for greater autonomy rather than full independence for Kosova... Berisha seems, unwisely, to have relied on support from FARK for manpower in his attempt to overthrow the government. ...In a further dramatic development on the same day, the chief commander of FARK, Ahmet Krasniqi, was shot and killed by two masked gunmen in Tirana...Although no person has been arrested so far for the killing of Krasniqi, the incident served to focus attention on the activities of Kosovars involved in the war in Kosova who were coordinating their activities increasingly from Tirana. ...there were numerous theories as to who killed Krasniqi. Democrats were insistent that the FARK commander, who was residing temporarily in Tirana, was assassinated by the Albanian intelligence service, the SHIK...
  207. ^ Florian Bieber; Zidas Daskalovski (2 August 2004). Understanding the War in Kosovo. Routledge. pp. 291–. ISBN 978-1-135-76155-4. As shown earlier, the relations between Rugova and the Socialist-led government had deteriorated due to the foreign policy pursued by the Socialists but also by the latter's support of Hashim Thaci, former political leader of KLA...
  208. ^ Mikael Eriksson; Roland Kostić (15 February 2013). Mediation and Liberal Peacebuilding: Peace from the Ashes of War?. Routledge. pp. 43–. ISBN 978-1-136-18916-6. However, as the KLA received eventually greater support, locally and internationally, parts of the FARK were incorporated under the KLA umbrella.
  209. ^ Timothy W. Crawford (2003). Pivotal Deterrence: Third-party Statecraft and the Pursuit of Peace. Cornell University Press. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-0-8014-4097-7. On 29 May Rugova met with Clinton in Washington...
  210. ^ Dilaver Goxhaj (23 January 2016), Jo shtatore ne Tirane atij qe nuk luftoi per clirimin e Kosoves [Not a monument in Tirana for him who did not fight for Kosovo liberation] (in Albanian), AAV, archived from the original on 7 March 2016, retrieved 26 February 2016, Dihet gjithashtu që Rugova shkoi deri tek Presidenti Bill Klinton, më 28 maj 1998, i shoqëruar prej Fehmi Aganit, Bujar Bukoshit dhe Veton Surroi, për t'i kundërvënë UÇK-së edhe Amerikën, duke i thënë: "Grupet e armatosura në Kosovë, përgjithësishtë kanë pikpamje të majta, pra janë nga ata që kanë patur ide të majta, drejtohen nga njerëz që edhe sot e kësaj dite kanë nostalgji për ish figura të njohura komuniste, si për shëmbëll për Enver Hoxhën,"
  211. ^ Liebknecht, Rosa (10 April 1992), Inside the KLA, International Viewpoint, In particular, it appears to have connections with the National Movement of Kosova, which was formed in 1982.
  212. ^ Lyubov Grigorova Mincheva; Ted Robert Gurr (3 January 2013). Crime-Terror Alliances and the State: Ethnonationalist and Islamist Challenges to Regional Security. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-135-13210-1. The political entity that helped fund the KLA was People's Movement of Kosovo (LPK), a rival underground movement to Ibrahim Rugova's LDK.
  213. ^ Lorimer, Doug (14 June 1999), NATO's Balkan War and the Kosova Liberation Struggle, DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST PERSPECTIVE - The Activist - Volume 9, archived from the original on 29 February 2016, retrieved 26 February 2016, In an interview in April this year with a left-wing British magazine, Pleurat Sejdiiu, the diplomatic representative of the KLA in London, explained that the KLA had been formed in 1993 as the military wing of the Hoxhaite People's Movement of Kosova, the LPK. Sejdiiu, a member of the LPK since 1985, said that this decision had been made because of the LPK's frustration with the ineffectiveness of the passive civil disobedience line of the dominant Kosovar party, Ibrahim Rugova's Democratic League of Kosova, the LDK. Sejdiiu said: With the creation of the KLA, the LDK, especially Rugova, started accusing the KLA of being a bunch of people linked to the Serbian state security. Roguva was saying that Serbia had an interest in destabilising us all. That was pure demagoguery because Serbia had it in hand, they didn't need any destabilisation and they controlled everything. So we have actually to fight on two fronts. As well as the military campaign we had to fight politically against the LDK as the main force who has been opposed to any other methods than peaceful means, while all the time only sitting in their offices, having meetings and press conferences. They have even been against the student organisation having mass demonstrations. But oppression in Kosova went on all the time, growing day by day and the ranks of the KLA began to grow from those people who actually started with the idea that the only way to get our independence was armed struggle.
  214. ^ Chih-Hann Chang (28 March 2013). Ethical Foreign Policy?: US Humanitarian Interventions. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 136–. ISBN 978-1-4094-8943-6. Thaci was the main opponent of signing the agreement, while Rugova had minimal influence at the talks...When both parties returned to Paris in mid-March, the Kosovar Albanian delegation signed the accord...
  215. ^ a b Ian Jeffries (27 August 2003). The Former Yugoslavia at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century: A Guide to the Economies in Transition. Routledge. pp. 474–. ISBN 978-1-134-46050-2. Also on 1 April 1999, the Yugoslav state television showed a meeting between Milosevic and Rugova. On 5 May Ibrahim Rugova and his family flew to Rome... says he was acting under duress when he backed Slobodan Milošević's call for an end to NATO's strikes...Mr Rugova ... [said] that the agreement had no meaning...
  216. ^ Heike Krieger (12 July 2001). The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical Documentation 1974-1999. Cambridge University Press. pp. 485–. ISBN 978-0-521-80071-6. ...the appeal for stopping the NATO strikes has come from Ibrahim Rugova, the acknowledged leader of the Kosovo Albanians.
  217. ^ Paulin Kola (2003). The search for Greater Albania. Hurst & Co. p. 360. ISBN 9781850656647. OCLC 52978026. To complicate matters further for NATO, Rugova's first pronouncements confirmed fears that the Albanian leader was sticking to a deal with Milosevic.
  218. ^ Michael Radu (2005). Dilemmas of Democracy and Dictatorship: Place, Time and Ideology in Global Perspective. Transaction Publishers. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-4128-2171-1. ...although Rugova's recent meeting with Milosevic may well have been under duress, the KLA declared Rugova a "traitor"...
  219. ^ Kosova: Zgjedhje Historike [Kosovo: Historic Elections] (PDF) (in Albanian), International Crisis Group, 21 November 2001, p. 9, Shumica menduan se partia dhe udhëheqësi i saj do të zhdukeshin politikisht pas fushatës së bombardimeve të NATO-s në 1999. Gjatë bombardimeve, Rugova u filmua në një takim me ish-presidentin jugosllav Sllobodan Millosheviç, dhe u akuzua nga disa si tepër paqësor. Pas bombardimeve UÇK-ja veproi me shpejtësi për të plotësuar boshllëkun e lënë nga ikja e forcave serbe, ndërsa Rugova edhe për disa javë qëndroi jashtë vendit. Megjithatë, vetëm një pakicë e shqiptarëve të Kosovës morën pjesë aktive në UÇK. Besnikëria ndaj LDK-së dhe Rugovës u rikthye ballë zmbrapsjes ndaj arrogancës së UÇK-së shfaqur në dëshirën për të kontrolluar ekonominë dhe politikën në kaosin para krijimit të UNMIK-ut. Pozicioni mbizotërues i LDK-së në zgjedhjet e tetorit 2000, e risolli atë si forcën mbizotëruese politike të Kosovës.
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