インドネシア

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座標：5° S120°E / 5°S 120°E / -5; 120

インドネシア共和国
Republik Indonesia   （インドネシア語）
モットー：  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika （カウィ
語）（英語：「多様性の中の統一」）
国民のイデオロギー：パンチャシラ[1] [2]
国歌：  「インドネシアラヤ」
（英語：「グレートインドネシア」）
Indonesia (orthographic projection).svg
Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg
資本
そして最大の都市
ジャカルタ6° 10'S106°49'E
 / 6.167°S 106.817°E / -6.167; 106.817
公用語
と国語		インドネシア語
地域の言語オーバー700の言語[3]
民族グループ
1,300を超える民族グループ[4]
宗教
（2018）[5]
住民の呼称インドネシア語
政府単一 大統領 立憲共和制
• 大統領
ジョコ・ウィドド
• 副社長
マアルフアミン
プアンマハラニ
ムハンマド・シャリフディン
立法府国民協議会（MPR）
• アッパーハウス
地方代表議会（DPD）
• 衆議院
国民議会（DPR）
独立 
オランダから
• 宣言
1945年8月17日
• 認識
1949年12月27日
領域
• 土地
1,904,569 [6]  km 2（735,358平方マイル）（14日）
• 水（％）
4.85
人口
•2020年国勢調査
270,203,917 [7]（4番目）
• 密度
141 / km 2（365.2 / sq mi）（88th）
GDP  （PPP）2021年の見積もり
• 合計
Increase3.530兆ドル[8]（7日）
• 一人あたり
Increase$ 12,967 [8]（96日）
GDP  （名目）2021年の見積もり
• 合計
Increase1.150兆ドル[8]（16日）
• 一人あたり
Increase$ 4,224 [8]（104番目）
ジニ （2019）Negative increase 38.2 [9]
中
HDI  （2019）Increase 0.718 [10]
高 ・ 107位
通貨インドネシアルピア（Rp）（IDR）
タイムゾーンUTC + 7〜 + 9（さまざまな）
日付形式DD / MM / YYYY
主電源220 V〜50 Hz
運転側左
市外局番+62
ISO3166コードID
インターネットTLD.id

インドネシア（/ ˌ ɪ N D ə N I ʒ ə / （聞く）About this sound 、IN -də- NEE -zhə）、正式にインドネシア共和国（インドネシア：共和国インドネシア [reˈpublikɪndoˈnesia] （listen）About this sound）、 [a]は、東南アジアとオセアニアのインド洋と太平洋の間にある国です。それは、スマトラ、ジャワ、スラウェシ、そしてボルネオとニューギニアの一部を含む、 17000以上の島々で構成されています。インドネシアは世界最大の島国であり、面積で14番目に大きい国であり、1,904,569平方キロメートル（735,358平方マイル）です。）。約2億7000万人の人口を抱えるインドネシアは、世界で4番目に人口の多い国であり、最も人口の多いイスラム教徒が多数を占める国です。世界で最も人口の多い島であるジャワ島には、国の人口の半分以上が住んでいます。

インドネシアは大統領、立憲共和制であり、立法府が選出されています。それは持っている34州5を持っているの、特別な地位を。国の首都ジャカルタは、世界で2番目に人口の多い都市部です。インドネシアの株式は国境土地とパプアニューギニア、東ティモール、および東部のマレーシアだけでなく、海上の境界線とシンガポール、ベトナム、フィリピン、オーストラリア、パラオ、およびインド（アンダマンおよびニコバル諸島）。人口が多く、人口密度の高い地域にもかかわらず、インドネシアには世界で最も高いレベルの生物多様性の1つを支える広大な荒野があります。

インドネシア列島は、少なくとも7世紀にスリビジャヤとその後のマジャパヒトが中国本土とインド亜大陸の実体と貿易を行って以来、貿易にとって貴重な地域でした。地元の統治者は何世紀にもわたって外国の影響を徐々に吸収し、ヒンドゥー教と仏教の王国が繁栄しました。スンニ派の商人とスーフィーの学者はイスラム教をもたらしましたが、キリスト教は主にヨーロッパの探検家を通じてもたらされました。時々によって中断がポルトガル語、フランス語、英国、オランダ群島での350年のプレゼンスの多くで植民地の第一人者でした。国民国家としての「インドネシア」の概念は20世紀初頭に出現し、1945年のインドネシア独立宣言で最高潮に達しました。しかし、オランダが武装した外交紛争の後にインドネシアの主権を認めたのは1949年のことでした。 2。

インドネシアは何百もの異なる先住民の民族的および言語的グループで構成されており、ジャワ人が最大です。共有アイデンティティをモットーに開発した「Bhinneka Tunggalイカ」（「多様性の中の統一」文字通りイスラム教徒、大半の集団内で国語、民族の多様性、宗教的多元によって定義され、「多くの、まだ1」）、そして歴史植民地主義とそれに対する反逆の。インドネシアの経済は、名目GDPで世界第16位、購買力平価で第7位です。それは地域大国であり、ミドルパワーと見なされますグローバルな問題で。この国は、国連、世界貿易機関、G20を含むいくつかの多国間組織のメンバーであり、非同盟運動、東南アジア諸国連合、東アジアサミット、イスラム協力機構の創設メンバーです。

語源

インドネシアという名前は、ギリシャ語で「インドの島々」を意味するインドス（Ἰνδός）とネソス（νῆσος）に由来しています。[11]その名前は18世紀にさかのぼり、独立したインドネシアの形成よりはるかに前のものです。[12] 1850年、ジョージ・ウィンザー伯爵、英語の民族学者は、用語を提案Indunesians -そして、彼の好み、Malayunesians「インド諸島の住民や-forマレー諸島」。[13]同じ出版物で、彼の学生の一人、ジェームズ・リチャードソン・ローガン、インドネシアをインド列島の同義語として使用しました。[14] [15]しかし、イーストインディーズの出版物に書いているオランダの学者はインドネシアの使用に消極的でした。彼らはマレー諸島を好みました（オランダ語：マレー諸島）;オランダ領東インド（Nederlandschオーストインディーズ）、一般にインディーズ。東（de Oost）;とInsulinde。[16]

1900年以降、インドネシアはオランダ国外の学界でより一般的になり、ネイティブのナショナリストグループが政治的表現のためにインドネシアを採用しました。[16] ベルリン大学のアドルフ・バスティアンは、彼の著書Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels、1884–1894を通じてこの名前を広めました。この名前を使用した最初の先住民学者は、1913年にオランダにプレスビューロー、インドネシッチペルスビューローを設立したとき、キハジャルデワンタラでした。[12]

歴史

初期の歴史

ボロブドゥール寺院に彫られたボロブドゥール船、c。西暦800年。群島からのアウトリガーボートは、西暦1世紀には早くもアフリカの東海岸への貿易航海を行った可能性があります。[17]

「ジャワ原人」として一般に知られているホモ・エレクトスの化石化した遺跡は、インドネシア列島が200万年から50万年前に生息していたことを示唆しています。[18] [19] [20]ホモサピエンスは紀元前43、000年頃にこの地域に到達した。[21]現代の人口の大部分を占めるオーストロネシア人は、現在の台湾から東南アジアに移住した。彼らは紀元前2000年頃に群島に到着し、東に広がるにつれて、先住民のメラネシア人を極東の地域に閉じ込めました。[22]理想的な農業条件と紀元前8世紀には早くも水田稲作の習得 [23]は、西暦1世紀までに村、町、小さな王国が繁栄することを可能にしました。群島の戦略的なシーレーンの位置は、紀元前数世紀から、インドの王国や中国の王朝を含む、島間および国際貿易を促進しました。 [24]それ以来、貿易はインドネシアの歴史を根本的に形作った。 [25] [26]

西暦7世紀から、スリビジャヤ海軍王国は貿易とヒンドゥー教と仏教の影響により繁栄しました。[27] [28]西暦8世紀から10世紀の間に、農業仏教のサイレンドラ朝とヒンドゥー教のマタラム王朝はジャワ島内陸部で繁栄し衰退し、サイレンドラのボロブドゥールやマタラムのプランバナンなどの壮大な宗教的モニュメントを残しました。ヒンドゥーマジャパヒト王国は、13世紀後半に東ジャワで、ガジャマダの下で設立されました。、その影響は現在のインドネシアの大部分に広がった。この時期は、インドネシアの歴史では「ゴールデンエイジ」と呼ばれることがよくあります。[29]

群島のイスラム化された人口の最も初期の証拠は、北スマトラの13世紀にまでさかのぼります。[30]群島の他の地域は徐々にイスラム教を採用し、16世紀の終わりまでにジャワ島とスマトラ島で支配的な宗教となった。ほとんどの場合、イスラム教は既存の文化的および宗教的影響と重なり合い、混合され、インドネシア、特にジャワでイスラム教の支配的な形態を形作った。[31]

植民地時代

提出王子ディポネゴロへの一般的なデコックの終わりにJavaの戦争1830年

最初のヨーロッパ人はポルトガルのトレーダーは、率いる1512年に日本列島に到着したフランシスコ・セラオ、独占しようとするソースナツメグ、クローブ、およびcubebコショウをしてマルク諸島。[32]オランダとイギリスのトレーダーが続いた。 1602年、オランダはオランダ東インド会社（VOC）を設立し、ほぼ200年間ヨーロッパの支配的な勢力になりました。 VOCは破産後1800年に解散し、オランダはオランダ領東インドを国有化された植民地として設立しました。[33]

植民地時代のほとんどの間、群島に対するオランダの支配は希薄でした。オランダ軍は、ジャワ島の内外で反乱を鎮圧することに継続的に従事していた。ジャワ島中部のディポネゴロ王子、スマトラ島中部のイマームボンジョール、マルクのパティムラ、アチェでの30年間の血なまぐさい戦争などの地元の指導者の影響により、オランダ人は弱体化し、植民地軍を拘束しました。[34] [35] [36] 20世紀初頭になって初めて、オランダの支配はインドネシアの現在の境界となるものにまで拡大しました。[36] [37] [38] [39]

第二次世界大戦中の日本の侵略とその後の占領はオランダの支配を終わらせ[40] [41] [42]、以前は抑圧されていた独立運動を奨励した。[43] 1945年8月の日本降伏の2日後、影響力のあるナショナリストの指導者であるスカルノとモハマッド・ハッタはインドネシアの独立を宣言し、それぞれ大統領と副大統領に任命された。[44] [45] [46] [44] [47]

オランダは彼らの支配を再確立しようとしました、そして、オランダが国際的な圧力に直面してインドネシアの独立を正式に認めたとき、激しい武装と外交闘争は1949年12月に終わりました。[48] [46] [49]並外れた政治的、社会的および宗派間の分裂にもかかわらず、インドネシア人は全体として、独立のための戦いにおいて団結を見いだした。[50] [51]

第二次世界大戦後

スカルノ（左）とハッタ（右）、それぞれインドネシアの建国の父と初代大統領と副大統領。

大統領として、スカルノはインドネシアを民主主義から権威主義へと動かし、軍隊、政治的イスラム教、そしてますます強力になるインドネシア共産党（PKI）の対立する勢力のバランスをとることによって権力を維持しました。[52]軍とPKIの間の緊張は、1965年にクーデター未遂で最高潮に達した。スハルト少佐が率いる軍は、50万人から100万人を殺した暴力的な反共産主義の粛清を扇動することによって対抗した。[53] [54] [55] PKIはクーデターのせいにされ、事実上破壊された。[56] [57] [58]スハルトはスカルノの弱体化した立場を利用し、スカルノとの強力なプレーの後、1968年3月に大統領に任命された。彼の「新秩序」政権[59]は、米国の支援を受けた[60] [61] [62 ]奨励外国直接投資、[63] [64]大幅な経済成長のその後の三十年で非常に重要な要因でした。

インドネシアは、1997年のアジア金融危機によって最も大きな打撃を受けた国でした。[65]それは、ニュー・オーダーの腐敗と政治的反対の抑圧に対する一般的な不満を引き起こし、最終的にスハルトの大統領職を終わらせた。[40] [66] [67] [68] 1999年、東ティモールは1975年のインドネシア侵略[69]と、人権侵害の国際的非難を特徴とする25年間の占領に続いて、インドネシアから脱退した。[70]

1998年以来、民主的プロセスは、地域の自治を強化し、2004年に国の最初の直接大統領選挙を開始することによって強化されてきました。[71]政治的、経済的および社会的不安定、汚職、およびテロの事例（最も致命的なのは2002年のバリ島爆弾テロ）は2000年代も依然として問題であった。しかし、経済は過去15年間で力強い業績を上げています。多様な人々の間の関係はほとんど調和していますが、一部の地域では、宗派間の深刻な不満と暴力が依然として問題となっています。[72]アチェでの武装分離主義者紛争への政治的解決は、2004年のインド洋地震と津波に続いて2005年に達成された。それは13万人のインドネシア人を殺しました。[73]

政府と政治

ジャカルタ国会議事堂でのMPRによる大統領就任式、2014年

インドネシアは大統領制の共和国です。1998年の新秩序の崩壊後、政治および政府の構造は抜本的な改革を経て、4つの憲法改正により、行政、立法、司法の各部門が刷新されました。[74]その中で最も重要なのは、単一国家でありながら、さまざまな地域団体への権力と権限の委任である。[75]インドネシアの大統領はある国家元首および政府の長、最高司令官のインドネシア国軍（Tentara NASIONALインドネシア、TNI）、および国内統治、政策立案、および外交のディレクター。大統領は、最大2回連続して5年間の任期を務めることができます。[76]

全国レベルで最高の代表機関は国民協議会（Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat、MPR）です。その主な機能は、憲法の支持と改正、大統領の発足と弾劾[77] [78]、そして国家政策の大まかな概要の形式化である。 MPRは2つの家で構成されています。575人のメンバーからなる国民議会（Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat、DPR）、および136人からなる地方代表議会（Dewan Perwakilan Daerah、DPD）。[79]DPRは法案を可決し、行政機関を監視します。 1998年以降の改革は、国家統治におけるその役割を著しく増大させたが[74]、DPDは地域管理の問題のための新しい部屋である。[80] [78]

ほとんどの民事紛争は州裁判所（Pengadilan Negeri）に出廷します。控訴は高等裁判所（Pengadilan Tinggi）で審理されます。インドネシアの最高裁判所（Mahkamahアグンは）司法の最高レベルであり、最終停止アピールと導通ケースレビューを聞きます。他の裁判所には、憲法および政治問題に耳を傾ける憲法裁判所（Mahkamah Konstitusi）、および成文化されたイスラム法（sharia）事件を扱う宗教裁判所（Pengadilan Agama）が含まれます。[81]さらに、司法委員会（Komisi Yudisial）審査員のパフォーマンスを監視します。[82]

政党と選挙

ジョコ・ウィドド
第7代インドネシア大統領
マアルフアミン
第13代インドネシア副大統領

1999年以来、インドネシアには複数政党制があります。新秩序の崩壊以降のすべての立法選挙において、全体の過半数の議席を獲得することに成功した政党はありません。闘争のインドネシア民主党で最も多くの票を確保（PDI-P）、2019年の選挙では、現職大統領の政党であるジョコ・ウィドド。[83]他の注目すべき政党には、機能グループ党（ゴルカル）、大インドネシア運動党（ゲリンドラ）、民主党、および繁栄正義党（PKS）が含まれる。

最初の総選挙は1955年に行われ、DPRと憲法議会（Konstituante）のメンバーを選出しました。 2019年の最新の選挙では、DPRに9つの政党があり、議会のしきい値は国民投票の4％でした。[84]全国レベルでは、インドネシア人は2004年まで大統領を選出しなかった。それ以来、DPRおよび無党派DPDの政党に所属するメンバーと同様に、大統領は5年間の任期で選出される。[79] [74]に始まり2015年の地方選挙、知事と市長の選挙は同じ日に行われました。2014年、憲法裁判所は、2019年から立法選挙と大統領選挙を同時に行うことを決定しました。[85]

外交関係

インドネシア大使館、キャンベラ、オーストラリア

インドネシアは、95の大使館を含む132の外交使節団を海外で維持しています。[86]この国は、「自由で積極的な」外交政策と呼ばれるものを順守し、その規模と場所に比例して地域問題における役割を模索しているが、他国間の紛争への関与を避けている。[87]

インドネシアは冷戦時代の重要な戦場でした。米国とソビエト連邦[88] [89]と中華人民共和国[90]による多数の試みは、1965年のクーデターの試みとその後の激動で頂点に達し、外交政策の方向転換につながった。[91]非同盟の姿勢を維持しながら、西側世界との静かな連携は、それ以来、インドネシアの外交政策を特徴づけてきた。[92]今日、それは近隣諸国と緊密な関係を維持しており、東南アジア諸国連合（ASEAN）および東アジアサミットの創設メンバーである。。ほとんどのイスラム世界と共通して、インドネシアはイスラエルと外交関係を持たず、パレスチナを積極的に支援してきました。しかし、オブザーバーは、インドネシアは慎重ではあるがイスラエルと関係があると指摘している。[93]

インドネシアはされているメンバーの国連1950年以降との創立メンバーだった非同盟（NAM）とイスラム協力機構（OIC）。[94]インドネシアは、ASEAN自由貿易地域協定、ケアンズグループ、世界貿易機関（WTO）の署名者であり、時折OPEC加盟国である。[95]中、インドネシア、マレーシアの対立インドネシアが原因との後者の選挙に国連から撤退し、国連安全保障理事会、18か月後に戻ってきましたが。加盟国が撤退を試みたのは国連史上初めてのことでした。[96]インドネシアは、1966年以来人道および開発援助の受領者であり[97] [98] [99]、最近、国は2019年後半に最初の海外援助プログラムを確立した。[100]

軍隊

インドネシア軍。上から時計回りに：トレーニングセッション中のインドネシア軍、スホーイSu-30、ピンダッドアノア、およびインドネシア海軍艦艇KRIスルタンイスカンダルムダ367。

インドネシアの軍隊（TNI）には、陸軍（TNI–AD）、海軍（TNI–AL、海兵隊を含む）、および空軍（TNI–AU）が含まれます。陸軍には約40万人の現役職員がいます。国家予算における国防費は2018年にGDPの0.7％であり[101]、軍が所有する商業的利益と財団の関与について物議を醸した。[102]軍隊は、インドネシア独立戦争中に非公式の民兵とともにゲリラ戦を行ったときに結成された。それ以来、領土線は、国内の安定を維持し、外国の脅威を阻止することを目的として、すべてのTNI支部の構造の基礎を形成してきました。[103]軍隊は、新秩序の間にピークに達した創設以来、強力な政治的影響力を持ってきました。 1998年の政治改革には、立法府からのTNIの正式な代表の削除が含まれていました。それにもかかわらず、その政治的影響力は、レベルは低下しているものの、依然として残っています。[104]

独立以来、国は地元の反乱と分離主義運動に対して団結を維持するのに苦労してきました。[105]特にアチェとパプアでは、武力紛争とそれに続くあらゆる側面からの人権侵害と残虐行為の申し立てにつながった者もいる。[106] [107]前者は2005年に平和的に解決されたが[73]、後者は、不完全ではあるが重要な地域自治法の施行と、2004年以降の暴力および人権侵害のレベルの低下が報告されている中で継続している。[108]軍の他の関与には、オランダニューギニアに対するキャンペーンが含まれる領土をインドネシアに組み込むこと、マレーシアの創設に反対するコンフロンタシ、PKIの大量殺戮、そしてインドネシアで最も大規模な軍事作戦である東ティモール侵略。[109] [110]

行政区画

インドネシアにはいくつかのレベルの細分化があります。最初のレベルは州のレベルであり、合計34のうち5つが特別なステータスを持っています。それぞれに立法府（Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah、DPRD）と選出された知事がいます。この数は、最新の変更はの分割されて、進化してきた北カリマンタンから東カリマンタン2012年[111]第2のレベルがあることregencies（のkabupaten）と都市（コタの試薬（率いる）、bupati）と市長（walikota）と議会（DPRD Kabupaten / Kota）。 3番目のレベルは地区のレベルです（kecamatan、distrikでパプア、又はkapanewonとkemantrenでジョグ）、そして4番目はである村（いずれかDESA、kelurahan、カンポン、nagari西スマトラ、又はにおけるgampongでアチェ）。[112]

村は政府行政の最低レベルです。それはいくつかのコミュニティグループ（rukun warga、RW）に分割され、さらに近隣グループ（rukun tetangga、RT）に分割されます。ジャワでは、村（desa）は、RWと同じdusunまたはdukuh（集落）と呼ばれる小さな単位に分割されています。 2001年に地域自治措置が実施された後、県と市はほとんどの政府サービスの提供を担当する主な行政単位になりました。村の行政レベルは、市民の日常生活に最も影響を及ぼし、選出された村長（ルラまたはケパラデサ）を通じて村または近隣の問題を処理します）。[113]

アチェ、ジャカルタ、ジョグジャカルタ、パプア、西パプアは、他の州よりも立法上の特権が高く、中央政府からの自治権が高い。保守的なイスラムの領土であるアチェは、シャリーアを実施する独立した法制度のいくつかの側面を作成する権利を持っています。[114]ジョグジャカルタは、インドネシアで法的に認められている唯一の植民地時代以前の君主制であり、ジョグジャカルタのスルタンとパク・アラムの子孫には、それぞれ知事と副知事の地位が優先されている。[115]パプアと西パプアは、先住民が住む唯一の州です。地方自治体で特権を持っています。[116]ジャカルタは、インドネシアの首都としての地位のために州政府を認可された唯一の都市です。[117] [118]

地理

マウントスメルとブロモ山で東ジャワ。インドネシアの地震と火山活動は世界で最も高いものの1つです。

インドネシアは緯度11°Sと6°N、経度95°Eと141°Eの間にあります。それは世界最大の群島国家であり、東から西に5,120キロメートル（3,181マイル）、南北に1,760キロメートル（1,094マイル）伸びています。[119]国の海事および投資担当調整大臣は、インドネシアは17504の島々 （UNに登録16056で）持っていると言う[120]赤道の両側に散在し、周り6000これのが生息しています。[121]最大のものはスマトラ、ジャワ、ボルネオです（ブルネイおよびマレーシアと共有）、スラウェシ、およびニューギニア（パプアニューギニアと共有）。[122]インドネシアは、ボルネオ島とセバティック島でマレーシアと国境を接し、ニューギニア島でパプアニューギニア、ティモール島で東ティモールと国境を接し、シンガポール、マレーシア、ベトナム、フィリピン、パラオ、オーストラリアと海上国境を共有している。。

4,884メートル（16,024フィート）のジャヤ山はインドネシアの最高峰であり、スマトラ島のトバ湖は面積1,145 km2（442平方マイル）の最大の湖です。インドネシア最大の河川はカリマンタンとニューギニアにあり、カプアス、バリト、マンベラモ、セピック、マハカムが含まれます。それらは島の川の集落間のコミュニケーションと輸送のリンクとして機能します。[123]

気候

で熱帯雨林マウントPalung国立公園、西カリマンタン

インドネシアは赤道沿いにあり、その気候は一年中比較的均一である傾向があります。[124]インドネシアには、雨季と乾季の2つの季節があり、夏や冬の極端な時期はありません。[125]インドネシアのほとんどの地域では、乾季は5月から10月で、雨季は11月から4月です。[125]インドネシアの気候はほぼ完全に熱帯であり、インドネシアのすべての大きな島に見られる熱帯雨林の気候が支配的です。海抜1,300〜1,500メートル（4,300〜4,900フィート）の山岳地帯には、より多くの冷却気候タイプが存在します。海洋性気候（ケッペンCfb）熱帯雨林気候に隣接する高地地域で優勢であり、年間を通じて適度に均一な降水量があります。熱帯モンスーンと熱帯サバンナ気候に近い高地では、亜熱帯高原の気候（ケッペンCWBは）より顕著ドライシーズンで流行しています。[要出典]

インドネシアのケッペンガイガー気候分類マップ[126]

カリマンタンやスマトラなどの一部の地域では、季節ごとに降雨量と気温にわずかな違いしかありませんが、ヌサテンガラなどの他の地域では、乾季の干ばつや雨季の洪水ではるかに顕著な違いが見られます。降雨量は地域によって異なり、スマトラ島西部、ジャワ島、カリマンタン島とパプア島の内部で多く、乾燥しがちなヌサテンガラなどのオーストラリアに近い地域では少なくなっています。インドネシアの面積の81％を構成するほぼ均一に暖かい水は、地温が比較的一定に保たれることを保証します。湿度は非常に高く、70〜90％です。風は穏やかで一般的に予測可能で、モンスーンがあります通常、6月から10月に南と東から、11月から3月に北西から吹き込みます。台風や大規模な嵐は、船員にほとんど危険をもたらしません。重大な危険は、ロンボク海峡やサペ海峡などの海峡の急流から発生します。[127]

いくつかの研究は、インドネシアが気候変動の予測される影響から深刻なリスクにさらされていると考えています。[128]これらには、世紀半ばまでに平均気温が約1°C（2°F）上昇する非削減排出量が含まれ、[129] [130]干ばつと食糧不足の頻度が上昇します（降水量と雨季と乾季のパターン、したがってインドネシアの農業システム[130]）、および多数の病気と山火事。[130] 海面上昇はまた、低地の沿岸地域に住むインドネシアの人口の大多数を脅かすだろう。[130] [131] [132]貧しいコミュニティは、気候変動の影響を最も受ける可能性があります。[133]

地質学

A chart with the heading "Major Volcanoes of Indonesia (with eruptions since 1900 A.D.)". Depicted below the heading is an overhead view of a cluster of islands.
インドネシアの主要な火山。インドネシアは環太平洋火山帯地域にあります。

構造的には、インドネシアの地域のほとんどは非常に不安定であり、多数の火山と頻繁な地震の場所となっています。[134]これは、太平洋上にある環太平洋火山帯インド・オーストラリアプレートと太平洋プレートが下に押され、ユーラシアプレート、彼らは深い約100キロ（62マイル）で溶融し、。火山の文字列は、スマトラ、通るジャワ、バリやヌサテンガラに続いて、バンダ諸島のマルク北東へスラウェシ。[135] 400の火山のうち、約130が活動しています。[134]1972年から1991年の間に、主にJavaで29回の火山噴火がありました。[136] 火山灰は、いくつかの地域で農業条件を予測不可能にしました。[137]しかしながら、それはまた肥沃な土壌をもたらし、ジャワとバリの高い人口密度を歴史的に維持する要因となった。[138]

大規模なsupervolcanoが噴出した現代ではトバ湖の周り7万BCE。これはまだ議論中ですが、世界的な火山の冬と気候の冷却を引き起こし、その後、人類の進化における遺伝的ボトルネックにつながったと考えられています。[139]タンボラ山の1815年の噴火とクラカトアの1883年の噴火は、記録された歴史の中で最大のものの1つでした。前者は92,000人の死者を出し、火山灰の傘を作り、群島の一部を広げて覆い、1816年の夏なしで北半球を大いに活用しました。[140]後者は、記録された歴史の中で最も大きな音を出し、噴火自体とその結果としての津波のために36,000人の死者を出し、イベントの数年後に世界中で重要な追加の影響をもたらしました。[141]地震活動による最近の壊滅的な災害には、2004年のインド洋地震と2006年のジョグジャカルタ地震が含まれる。

生物多様性と保全

インドネシア固有の種。：上から時計回りにラフレシア・アルノルディイ、オランウータン、オオフウチョウ、およびコモドドラゴン。

インドネシアの規模、熱帯気候、群島地理は、世界で最も高いレベルの生物多様性の1つを支えており、コンサベーションインターナショナルによって特定された17の巨大な国の1つです。その動植物は、アジアとオーストラレーシアの種の混合物です。[142]スンダ棚島（スマトラ、ジャワ、ボルネオ、バリ）が一度アジア大陸にリンクされ、アジアの動物の富を持っていました。スマトラトラ、サイ、オランウータン、アジアゾウなどの大型種、そしてヒョウはかつてバリまで東に豊富でしたが、数と分布は劇的に減少しました。大陸の陸地から長い間離れていたスラウェシ、ヌサテンガラ、マルクは、独特の動植物を発達させてきました。[143] [144]パプアはオーストラリアの陸地の一部であり、600種以上の鳥類を含む、オーストラリアと密接に関連した独特の動植物が生息しています。[145]

インドネシアは、固有種の総数でオーストラリアに次ぐ第2位であり、1,531種の鳥の36％、515種の哺乳類の39％が固有種です。[146]熱帯の海は、インドネシアの80,000キロメートル（50,000マイル）の海岸線を取り囲んでいます。この国には、ビーチ、砂丘、河口、マングローブ、サンゴ礁、海草床、沿岸干潟、干潟、藻類床、小さな島の生態系など、さまざまな海と沿岸の生態系があります。[11]インドネシアは、世界で最も多様な珊瑚礁の魚が生息するコーラルトライアングルの国のひとつであり、インドネシア東部だけで1,650種以上が生息しています。[147]

英国の博物学者アルフレッドラッセルウォレスは、インドネシアのアジア種とオーストラレーシア種の分布の間の境界線（ウォレス線）について説明しました。[148]それは、スンダ大陸棚の端に沿って、カリマンタンとスラウェシの間、そしてロンボク海峡に沿って、ロンボクとバリの間でほぼ南北に走っている。ラインの西側の動植物は一般的にアジア人ですが、ロンボク島の東側では、ウェーバーラインの転換点までオーストラリア人になりつつあります。ウォレスは1869年の著書、マレー諸島で、この地域に特有の多くの種について説明しています。[149] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[148]

Low visibility in Bukittinggi, West Sumatra, due to deforestation-related haze.

Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues. They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[150] Problems include the destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services.[150] These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index. The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance is generally below average in both regional and global context.[151]

In 2018, forests cover approximately 49.7% of the country's land area,[152] down from 87% in 1950.[153] Starting in 1970s, and continuing up to the present day, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia.[153] Most recently, it has been driven by the palm oil industry.[154] Though it can generate wealth for local communities, it may degrade ecosystems and cause social problems.[155] This situation makes Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.[156] It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including the Bali myna,[157] Sumatran orangutan,[158] and Javan rhinoceros.[159]

Economy

Vast palm oil plantation in Bogor, West Java. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil.[160]
A proportional representation of Indonesia exports, 2019

Indonesia has a mixed economy in which both the private sector and government play vital roles.[161] As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,[162] the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country. Per a 2021 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP, estimated to be US$1.159 trillion and US$3.507 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP is US$12,882, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,256. The debt ratio to GDP is 29.2%.[163] The services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%).[164] Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%).[165]

Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably.[166] Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in the 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency.[166] A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports.[166] This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock, during which the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%.[167] Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth.[168]

Relatively steady inflation[169] and an increase in GDP deflator and the Consumer Price Index[170] have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth has accelerated to between 4% and 6% as a result of improvement in the banking sector and domestic consumption,[171] helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession,[172] and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997.[173] As of 2019, 9.41% of the population lived below the poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%.[174] However, in late 2020, Indonesia fell into its first recession in 22 years due to the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic.[175]

Indonesia has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, coal, tin, copper, gold, and nickel, while agriculture produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices, and rubber. These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners.[176]

Transport

Major transport modes in Indonesia. Clockwise from top: TransJakarta bus, KRL Commuterline, Garuda Indonesia Boeing 777–300 ER, Pelni ship.

Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago, and the distribution of its 250 million people highly concentrated on Java.[177] All transport modes play a role in the country's transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive. In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP.[178]

The road transport system is predominant, with a total length of 542,310 kilometres (336,980 miles) as of 2018.[179] Jakarta has the most extended bus rapid transit system globally, boasting 251.2 kilometres (156.1 miles) in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes.[180] Rickshaws such as bajaj and becak and share taxis such as Angkot and Metromini are a regular sight in the country.

Most railways are in Java, used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in Jakarta and Yogyakarta–Solo) complementing the inter-city rail network in several cities. In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have rapid transit systems, with more planned for other cities in the future.[181] In 2015, the government announced a plan to build a high-speed rail, which would be a first in Southeast Asia.[182]

Indonesia's largest airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, is among the busiest in the Southern Hemisphere, serving 54 million passengers in 2019. Ngurah Rai International Airport and Juanda International Airport are the country's second-and third-busiest airport, respectively. Garuda Indonesia, the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. Port of Tanjung Priok is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian port,[183] handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.

Energy

Jatiluhur Dam, Indonesia's first and largest dam.

In 2017, Indonesia was the world's 9th largest energy producer with 4,200 terawatt-hours (14.2 quadrillion British thermal units), and the 15th largest energy consumer, with 2,100 terawatt-hours (7.1 quadrillion British thermal units).[184] The country has substantial energy resources, including 22 billion barrels (3.5 billion cubic metres) of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent of coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.[185] While reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased,[186] Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower being the most abundant source. Furthermore, the country has the potential for geothermal, solar, wind, biomass and ocean energy.[187] As of 2019, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 69,678.85 MW.[188]

The country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, has several purposes, including the provision of hydroelectric power generation, water supply, flood control, irrigation and aquaculture. The earth-fill dam is 105 m (344 ft) high and withholds a reservoir of 3.0 billion m3 (2.4 million acre⋅ft). It helps to supply water to Jakarta and to irrigate 240,000 ha (590,000 acres) of rice fields[189] and has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW which feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN).

Science and technology

Palapa satellite launch in 1984

Government expenditure on research and development is relatively low (0.3% of GDP in 2019)[190] and Indonesia only ranked 87th (out of 132 economies) on the 2021 Global Innovation Index report.[191] Historical examples of scientific and technological developments include the paddy cultivation technique terasering, which is common in Southeast Asia, and the pinisi boats by the Bugis and Makassar people.[192] In the 1980s, Indonesian engineer Tjokorda Raka Sukawati invented a road construction technique named Sosrobahu that allows the construction of long stretches of flyovers above existing main roads with minimum traffic disruption. It later became widely used in several countries.[193] The country is also an active producer of passenger trains and freight wagons with its state-owned company, the Indonesian Railway Industry (INKA), and has exported trains abroad.[194]

Indonesia has a long history of developing military and small commuter aircraft as the only country in Southeast Asia to build and produce aircraft. With its state-owned company, the Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia), Indonesia has provided components for Boeing and Airbus.[195] The company also collaborated with EADS CASA of Spain to develop the CN-235 that has seen use by several countries.[196] Former President B. J. Habibie played a vital role in this achievement.[197] Indonesia has also joined the South Korean programme to manufacture the fifth-generation jet fighter KAI KF-X.[198]

Indonesia has a space programme and space agency, the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN). In the 1970s, Indonesia became the first developing country to operate a satellite system called Palapa,[199] a series of communication satellites owned by Indosat Ooredoo. The first satellite, PALAPA A1, was launched on 8 July 1976 from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, United States.[200] As of 2019, Indonesia has launched 18 satellites for various purposes,[201] and LAPAN has expressed a desire to put satellites in orbit with native launch vehicles by 2040.[202]

Tourism

Borobudur in Central Java, the world's largest Buddhist temple, is the single most visited tourist attraction in Indonesia.[203]

Tourism contributed around US$19.7 billion to GDP in 2019. In 2018, Indonesia received 15.8 million visitors, a growth of 12.5% from last year, and received an average receipt of US$967.[204][205] China, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.[206] Since 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been the slogan of the country's international marketing campaign to promote tourism.[207]

Raja Ampat Islands, West Papua, has the highest recorded level of diversity in marine life, according to Conservation International.[208]

Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The former can boast a unique combination of a tropical climate, a vast archipelago, and a long stretch of beaches, and the latter complement those with a rich cultural heritage reflecting Indonesia's dynamic history and ethnic diversity. Indonesia has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rain forests that stretch over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). The ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, as well as Toraja and Bali with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.[209]

Indonesia has nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Komodo National Park and the Sawahlunto Coal Mine; and a further 19 in a tentative list that includes Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands.[210] Other attractions include the specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the old towns of Jakarta and Semarang and the royal palaces of Pagaruyung, Ubud, and Yogyakarta.[209]

Demographics

Population pyramid 2016

The 2020 census recorded Indonesia's population as 270.2 million, the fourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%.[211] Java is the world's most populous island,[212] where 56% of the country's population lives.[7] The population density is 141 people per km2 (365 per sq mi),[7] ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per km2 (2,435 per sq mi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people.[213] It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050.[214] The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 30.2 years (2017 estimate).[121]

The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitat and level of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua.[215] As of 2017, about 54.7% of the population lives in urban areas.[216] Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, with over 34 million residents.[217] About 8 million Indonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Hong Kong, Singapore, the United States, and Australia.[218]

 
Largest cities in Indonesia
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
Jakarta
Jakarta
Surabaya
Surabaya 		1 Jakarta Jakarta 10,562,088 11 South Tangerang Banten 1,354,350 Bekasi
Bekasi
Bandung
Bandung
2 Surabaya East Java 2,874,314 12 Batam Riau Islands 1,196,396
3 Bekasi West Java 2,543,676 13 Bandar Lampung Lampung 1,166,066
4 Bandung West Java 2,444,160 14 Bogor West Java 1,043,070
5 Medan North Sumatra 2,435,252 15 Pekanbaru Riau 983,356
6 Depok West Java 2,056,335 16 Padang West Sumatra 909,040
7 Tangerang Banten 1,895,486 17 Malang East Java 843,810
8 Palembang South Sumatra 1,668,848 18 Samarinda East Kalimantan 827,994
9 Semarang Central Java 1,653,524 19 Denpasar Bali 725,314
10 Makassar South Sulawesi 1,423,877 20 Tasikmalaya West Java 716,155

Ethnic groups and languages

A map of ethnic groups in Indonesia

Indonesia is an ethnically diverse country, with around 1,300 distinct native ethnic groups.[4] Most Indonesians are descended from Austronesian peoples whose languages had origins in Proto-Austronesian, which possibly originated in what is now Taiwan. Another major grouping is the Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia (the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea).[22][219][220]

The Javanese are the largest ethnic group, constituting 40.2% of the population,[4] and are politically dominant.[221] They are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of Java and also sizeable numbers in most provinces. The Sundanese are the next largest group (15.4%), followed by Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, Buginese and Malay people.[b] A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.[222]

The country's official language is Indonesian, a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect, which had been the archipelago's lingua franca for centuries. It was promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and achieved official status in 1945 under the name Bahasa Indonesia.[223] As a result of centuries-long contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, including Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Tamil, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.[224][225][226] Nearly every Indonesian speaks the language due to its widespread use in education, academics, communications, business, politics, and mass media. Most Indonesians also speak at least one of more than 700 local languages,[3] often as their first language. Most belong to the Austronesian language family, while over 270 Papuan languages are spoken in eastern Indonesia.[3] Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken[121] and has co-official status in the Special Region of Yogyakarta.[227]

In 1930, Dutch and other Europeans (Totok), Eurasians, and derivative people like the Indos, numbered 240,000 or 0.4% of the total population.[228] Historically, they constituted only a tiny fraction of the native population and remain so today. Also, the Dutch language never had a substantial number of speakers or official status despite the Dutch presence for almost 350 years.[229] The small minorities that can speak it or Dutch-based creole languages fluently are the aforementioned ethnic groups and descendants of Dutch colonisers. This reflected the Dutch colonial empire's primary purpose, which was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over homogeneous landmasses.[230] Today, there is some degree of fluency by either educated members of the oldest generation or legal professionals,[231] as specific law codes are still only available in Dutch.[232]

Religion

Despite guaranteeing religious freedom in the constitution,[233][78] the government officially recognises only six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism;[234][235] with indigenous religions only partly acknowledged.[235] With 231 million adherents (86.7%) in 2018, Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,[236][237] with Sunnis being the majority (99%).[238] The Shias and Ahmadis, respectively, constitute 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of Muslims.[235][239] Almost 11% of Indonesians are Christians, while the rest are Hindus, Buddhists, and others. Most Hindus are Balinese,[240] and most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians.[241]

A Hindu shrine dedicated to King Siliwangi in Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta, Bogor. Hinduism has left a legacy on Indonesian art and culture.

The natives of the Indonesian archipelago originally practised indigenous animism and dynamism, beliefs that are common to Austronesian people.[242] They worshipped and revered ancestral spirit and believed that supernatural spirits (hyang) might inhabit certain places such as large trees, stones, forests, mountains, or sacred sites.[242] Examples of Indonesian native belief systems include the Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Dayak's Kaharingan, and the Javanese Kejawèn. They have had a significant impact on how other faiths are practised, evidenced by a large proportion of people—such as the Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practising a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion.[243]

Hindu influences reached the archipelago as early as the first century CE.[244] The Sundanese Kingdom of Salakanagara in western Java around 130 was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago.[245] Buddhism arrived around the 6th century,[246] and its history in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhism had their roots around the same period. The archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful and influential Hindu and Buddhist empires such as Majapahit, Sailendra, Srivijaya, and Mataram. Though no longer a majority, Hinduism and Buddhism remain to have a substantial influence on Indonesian culture.[247][248]

Mass Eid al-Fitr prayer at Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta, the largest mosque in Southeast Asia

Islam was introduced by Sunni traders of the Shafi'i school as well as Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabia as early as the 8th century CE.[249][250] For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences that resulted in a distinct form of Islam (pesantren).[31][251] Trade, Islamic missionary activity such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates helped accelerate the spread of Islam.[252][253] By the end of the 16th century, it had supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the dominant religion of Java and Sumatra.

Catholic Mass at the Jakarta Cathedral

Catholicism was brought by Portuguese traders and missionaries such as Jesuit Francis Xavier, who visited and baptised several thousand locals.[254][255] Its spread faced difficulty due to the Dutch East India Company policy of banning the religion and the Dutch hostility due to the Eighty Years' War against Catholic Spain's rule. Protestantism is mostly a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the Dutch colonial era.[256][257][258] Although they are the most common branch, there is a multitude of other denominations elsewhere in the country.[259]

There was a sizeable Jewish presence in the archipelago until 1945, mostly Dutch and some Baghdadi Jews. Since most left after Indonesia proclaimed independence, Judaism was never accorded official status, and only a tiny number of Jews remain today, mostly in Jakarta and Surabaya.[260]

At the national and local level, Indonesia's political leadership and civil society groups have played a crucial role in interfaith relations, both positively and negatively. The invocation of the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila (the belief in the one and only God), often serves as a reminder of religious tolerance,[261] though instances of intolerance have occurred.[72] An overwhelming majority of Indonesians consider religion to be essential and an integral part of life.[262][263]

Education and health

Bandung Institute of Technology in West Java

Education is compulsory for 12 years.[264] Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively.[265] Private international schools that do not follow the national curriculum are also available. The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018).[266] The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education.[266] In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most of them (74%) being located in Sumatra and Java.[267][268] According to the QS World University Rankings, Indonesia's top universities are the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University and the Bandung Institute of Technology.

Government expenditure on healthcare is about 3.3% of GDP in 2016.[269] As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) in 2014.[270] It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in recent decades such as rising life expectancy (from 62.3 years in 1990 to 71.7 years in 2019)[271] and declining child mortality (from 84 deaths per 1,000 births in 1990 to 23.9 deaths in 2019),[272] challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, high rate of smoking, and infectious diseases.[273]

Issues

Riots on the streets of Jakarta on 14 May 1998.

In the economic sphere, there is a gap in wealth, unemployment rate, and health between densely populated islands and economic centres (such as Sumatra and Java) and sparsely populated, disadvantaged areas (such as Maluku and Papua).[274][275] This is created by a situation in which nearly 80% of Indonesia's population lives in the western parts of the archipelago,[276] and yet growing at a slower pace than the rest of the country.

In the social arena, numerous cases of racism and discrimination, especially against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, have been well documented throughout Indonesia's history.[277][278] Such cases have sometimes led to violent conflicts, most notably the May 1998 riots and the Papua conflict, which has continued since 1962. LGBT people also regularly face challenges. Although LGBT issues have been relatively obscure, the 2010s (especially after 2016) has seen a rapid surge of anti-LGBT rhetoric, putting LGBT Indonesians into a frequent subject of intimidation, discrimination, and even violence.[279][280] In addition, Indonesia has been reported to have sizeable numbers of child and forced labours, with the former being prevalent in the palm oil and tobacco industries, while the latter in the fishing industry.[281][282]

Culture

The cultural history of the Indonesian archipelago spans more than two millennia. Influences from the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, the Middle East, Europe,[283][284] and the Austronesian peoples have historically shaped the cultural, linguistic and religious makeup of the archipelago. As a result, modern-day Indonesia has a multicultural, multilingual and multi-ethnic society,[3][4] with a complex cultural mixture that differs significantly from the original indigenous cultures. Indonesia currently holds eleven items of UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage, including a wayang puppet theatre, kris, batik,[285] pencak silat, angklung, and the three genres of traditional Balinese dance.[286]

Art and architecture

Traditional Balinese painting depicting cockfighting

Indonesian arts include both age-old art forms developed through centuries and recently developed contemporary art. Despite often displaying local ingenuity, Indonesian arts have absorbed foreign influences—most notably from India, the Arab world, China and Europe, due to contacts and interactions facilitated, and often motivated, by trade.[287] Painting is an established and developed art in Bali, where its people are famed for their artistry. Their painting tradition started as classical Kamasan or Wayang style visual narrative, derived from visual art discovered on candi bas reliefs in eastern Java.[288]

An avenue of Tongkonan houses in a Torajan village, South Sulawesi

There have been numerous discoveries of megalithic sculptures in Indonesia.[289] Subsequently, tribal art has flourished within the culture of Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak and Toraja.[290][291] Wood and stone are common materials used as the media for sculpting among these tribes. Between the 8th and 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation has developed a refined stone sculpting art and architecture influenced by Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilisation. The temples of Borobudur and Prambanan are among the most famous examples of the practice.[292]

As with the arts, Indonesian architecture has absorbed foreign influences that have brought cultural changes and profound effect on building styles and techniques. The most dominant has traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European influences have also been significant. Traditional carpentry, masonry, stone and woodwork techniques and decorations have thrived in vernacular architecture, with numbers of traditional houses' (rumah adat) styles that have been developed. The traditional houses and settlements vary by ethnic groups, and each has a specific custom and history.[293] Examples include Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang and Rangkiang, Javanese style Pendopo pavilion with Joglo style roof, Dayak's longhouses, various Malay houses, Balinese houses and temples, and also different forms of rice barns (lumbung).[citation needed]

Music, dance and clothing

Indonesian music and dance. Clockwise from top: A gamelan player, Angklung, Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance, Balinese Pendet dance.

The music of Indonesia predates historical records. Various indigenous tribes incorporate chants and songs accompanied by musical instruments in their rituals. Angklung, kacapi suling, gong, gamelan, talempong, kulintang, and sasando are examples of traditional Indonesian instruments. The diverse world of Indonesian music genres results from the musical creativity of its people and subsequent cultural encounters with foreign influences. These include gambus and qasida from the Middle East,[294] keroncong from Portugal,[295] and dangdut—one of Indonesia's most popular music genres—with notable Hindi influence as well as Malay orchestras.[296] Today, the Indonesian music industry enjoys both nationwide and regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei,[297][298] due to common culture and intelligible languages between Indonesian and Malay.[citation needed]

An Indonesian batik

Indonesian dances have a diverse history, with more than 3,000 original dances. Scholars believe that they had their beginning in rituals and religious worship.[299] Examples include war dances, a dance of witch doctors, and dance to call for rain or any agricultural rituals such as Hudoq. Indonesian dances derive their influences from the archipelago's prehistoric and tribal, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic periods. Recently, modern dances and urban teen dances have gained popularity due to the influence of Western culture and those of Japan and South Korea to some extent. However, various traditional dances, including those of Java, Bali and Dayak, continue to be a living and dynamic tradition.[300]

Indonesia has various styles of clothing as a result of its long and rich cultural history. The national costume has its origins in the indigenous culture of the country and traditional textile traditions. The Javanese Batik and Kebaya[301] are arguably Indonesia's most recognised national costume, though they have Sundanese and Balinese origins as well.[302] Each province has a representation of traditional attire and dress,[283] such as Ulos of Batak from North Sumatra; Songket of Malay and Minangkabau from Sumatra; and Ikat of Sasak from Lombok. People wear national and regional costumes during traditional weddings, formal ceremonies, music performances, government and official occasions,[302] and they vary from traditional to modern attire.

Theatre and cinema

Pandava and Krishna in an act of the Wayang Wong performance

Wayang, the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese shadow puppet theatre display several mythological legends such as Ramayana and Mahabharata.[303] Other forms of local drama include the Javanese Ludruk and Ketoprak, the Sundanese Sandiwara, Betawi Lenong,[304][305] and various Balinese dance drama. They incorporate humour and jest and often involve audiences in their performances.[306] Some theatre traditions also include music, dancing and silat martial art, such as Randai from Minangkabau people of West Sumatra. It is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals,[307][308] and based on semi-historical Minangkabau legends and love story.[308] Modern performing art also developed in Indonesia with its distinct style of drama. Notable theatre, dance, and drama troupe such as Teater Koma are famous as it often portrays social and political satire of Indonesian society.[309]

Advertisement for Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), the first fiction film produced in the Dutch East Indies

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng,[310] a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp. The film industry expanded after independence, with six films made in 1949 rising to 58 in 1955. Usmar Ismail, who made significant imprints in the 1950s and 1960s, is generally considered the pioneer of Indonesian films.[311] The latter part of the Sukarno era saw the use of cinema for nationalistic, anti-Western purposes, and foreign films were subsequently banned, while the New Order utilised a censorship code that aimed to maintain social order.[312] Production of films peaked during the 1980s, although it declined significantly in the next decade.[310] Notable films in this period include Pengabdi Setan (1980), Nagabonar (1987), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988), Catatan Si Boy (1989), and Warkop's comedy films.

Independent filmmaking was a rebirth of the film industry since 1998, where films started addressing previously banned topics, such as religion, race, and love.[312] Between 2000 and 2005, the number of films released each year steadily increased.[313] Riri Riza and Mira Lesmana were among the new generation of filmmakers who co-directed Kuldesak (1999), Petualangan Sherina (2000), Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002), and Laskar Pelangi (2008). In 2016, Warkop DKI Reborn: Jangkrik Boss Part 1 smashed box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 6.8 million tickets sold.[314] Indonesia has held annual film festivals and awards, including the Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia) held intermittently since 1955. It hands out the Citra Award, the film industry's most prestigious award. From 1973 to 1992, the festival was held annually and then discontinued until its revival in 2004.

Mass media and literature

Metro TV at Gelora Bung Karno Stadium, reporting the 2010 AFF Championship

Media freedom increased considerably after the fall of the New Order, during which the Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media.[315] The television market includes several national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI, which held a monopoly on TV broadcasting from 1962 to 1989. By the early 21st century, the improved communications system had brought television signals to every village, and people can choose from up to 11 channels.[316] Private radio stations carry news bulletins while foreign broadcasters supply programmes. The number of printed publications has increased significantly since 1998.[316]

Like other developing countries, Indonesia began developing Internet in the early 1990s. Its first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet began operation in Jakarta in 1994.[317] The country had 171 million Internet users in 2018, with a penetration rate that keeps increasing annually.[318] Most are between the ages of 15 and 19 and depend primarily on mobile phones for access, outnumbering laptops and computers.[319]

Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Many considered him to be Southeast Asia's leading candidate for a Nobel Prize in Literature.[320]

The oldest evidence of writing in the Indonesian archipelago is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century. Many of Indonesia's peoples have firmly rooted oral traditions, which help define and preserve their cultural identities.[321] In written poetry and prose, several traditional forms dominate, mainly syair, pantun, gurindam, hikayat and babad. Examples of these forms include Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi.[322]

Early modern Indonesian literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.[323][324] Literature and poetry flourished during the decades leading up to and after independence. Balai Pustaka, the government bureau for popular literature, was instituted in 1917 to promote the development of indigenous literature. Many scholars consider the 1950s and 1960s to be the Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.[325] The style and characteristics of modern Indonesian literature vary according to the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape,[325] most notably the war of independence in the second half of the 1940s and the anti-communist mass killings in the mid-1960s.[326] Notable literary figures of the modern era include Multatuli, Chairil Anwar, Mohammad Yamin, Merari Siregar, Marah Roesli, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Cuisine

Nasi Padang with rendang, gulai and vegetables

Indonesian cuisine is one of the world's most diverse, vibrant, and colourful, full of intense flavour.[327] Many regional cuisines exist, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[328] Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish and chicken are fundamental ingredients.[329]

Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.[330] Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Padang cuisines along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.[331]

Sports

A demonstration of Pencak Silat, a form of martial arts

Sports are generally male-oriented, and spectators are often associated with illegal gambling.[332] Badminton and football are the most popular sports. Indonesia is among the only five countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies.[333] On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as two gold medals at the 1987 and 1991 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996 and successfully qualified for the next three tournaments, although they never make the knockout phase.[334]

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which has a long history in Indonesia and was part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.[335] Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art and, in 1987, became one of the sporting events in the SEA Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia is one of the top sports powerhouses by topping the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,[336] most recently in 2011.[337]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Sometimes the nationalistic name of the Unitary State of Republic of Indonesia (Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, NKRI) is used.
  2. ^ Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.

References

Citations

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Bibliography

External links

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