キリスト教

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キリスト教は、ナザレイエスの生涯教え基づいたアブラハムの一神教の 宗教です。それは世界最大の宗教であり、約24億人の信者がいます。[1]として知られている。その支持者、クリスチャンは、人口の大部分を占める157個の国と地域[2]とすることを信じているイエスがあるキリストそのよう来て、救世主預言ヘブライ語聖書と呼ばれる(旧約キリスト教で)そして新約聖書で記録されています。[3]

キリスト教は、その西部東部の支部だけでなく、正当化と救いの性質教会叙階、そしてキリスト論に関する教義においても文化的に多様なままです。信条、各種の教派は、一般的のような一般的なイエスに保持する神の御子-theロゴス転生-who奉仕苦しんで、そして十字架上で死亡したが、死者の中から上昇したために救い 人類の;福音と呼ばれ、「良いたより」を意味します。イエスの生涯と教えを説明するのは、旧約聖書を福音の尊敬される背景として、マタイマルコルカジョンの4つの正規の福音書です

キリスト教は、1世紀ローマユダヤ州で第二神殿のユダヤ教の宗派として始まりました。イエスの使徒たちとその追随者たちは最初の迫害にもかかわらずレバントヨーロッパアナトリアメソポタミア南コーカサスエジプトエチオピア広がっていまし。それはすぐに異邦人の神を恐れる人々を引き付け、それがユダヤ人の習慣からの脱却につながり、エルサレム崩壊、西暦70年に 寺院に基づくユダヤ教を終わらせ、キリスト教はゆっくりとユダヤ教から分離しました。皇帝コンスタンティヌス1世はことにより、ローマ帝国でキリスト教を免罪ミラノ勅令後に招集、(313)ニカイア公会議初代教会がなるものに統合された(325)ローマ帝国の国家教会(380)。主要な分裂の前のキリスト教の統一された教会の初期の歴史は、「大教会と呼ばれることもあります(グノーシス主義者ユダヤ人キリスト教徒を含む異なる宗派が同時に存在しましたが)。 NS東の教会後の分割エフェソス公会議(431)とオリエンタル正教後の分割カルケドン公会議の違いを超える(451)キリスト[4]しながら、東方正教会カトリック教会はで分離された東西教会の分裂( 1054)、特にローマ司教の権威を超えてプロテスタントは、神学的および教会論争をめぐって改革時代(16世紀)のカトリック教会からの多数の宗派に分かれました。ローマの司教の正当化優位性の問題について。キリスト教が果たした重要な役割をして、開発西洋文明から、特にヨーロッパでは、古代後期中世[5] [6] [7] [8] [9]大航海時代(15〜17世紀)に続いて、キリスト教は宣教活動を通じて南北アメリカオセアニアサハラ以南のアフリカ、その他の世界に広まりました。[10] [11] [12]

キリスト教の4つの最大の支部は、カトリック教会(13億/ 50.1%)、プロテスタンティズム(9億2000万/ 36.7%)、東方正教会(2億3000万)、東方正教会(6200万)です。 11.9%)、[13] [14]統一に向けた努力にもかかわらず、何千もの小さな教会コミュニティが存在します(エキュメニズム)。[15]にもかかわらず、付着の減少における西、キリスト教はクリスチャンとして同定人口の約70%で、地域内の支配的な宗教のままです。[16] キリスト教は、世界で最も人口の多い大陸であるアフリカとアジアで成長しています。[17]クリスチャンは、世界の一部の地域、特に中東、北アフリカ、東アジア、南アジアで迫害さ続けています。[18] [19]

語源

初期のユダヤ人クリスチャンは自分たちを「道」(コイネーギリシャ語τῆςὁδοῦローマ字:  têshodoû)と呼び、おそらくイザヤ40:3から来て「主の道を準備しなさい」と言いました[20] [注1]使徒11:26よると、「クリスチャン」(ΧρῑστῐᾱνόςKhrīstiānósという用語は、イエスの弟子に関連して「キリストの信者」を意味し、非ユダヤ人によってアンティオキアの街で最初に使用されました。そこの住民。[26]「キリスト教」という用語の最も初期の記録された使用(ΧρῑστῐᾱνισμόςKhrīstiānismós)は、西暦100年頃にアンティオキアのイグナティウスによって作成されました[27]

信念

世界中のクリスチャンは基本的な信念を共有していますが、聖書キリスト教の基礎となっている神聖な伝統の解釈や意見にも違いがあります。[28]

信条

コンスタンティヌス皇帝第1ニカイア公会議の(325)が、381年のニカイアコンスタンティノポリタン信条を保持していることを描い東方キリスト教のアイコン

簡潔な教義上のステートメントまたは宗教的信念の自白は、次のように知られている信条。それらはバプテスマの公式として始まり、後に4世紀と5世紀のキリスト論的論争の間に拡大されて信仰の声明になりました。 「イエスは主である」はキリスト教の最も初期の信条であり、世界教会協議会と同様に使用され続けています[29]

使徒信条は、キリスト教の信仰の記事の中で最も広く受け入れられている文です。それは、数で使用されている教派の両方のための典礼問答の典礼教会で最も目に見えて、目的西洋のキリスト教のを含め伝統、ラテン教会カトリック教会ルター聖公会、そして西洋儀式正教長老派教会メソジスト教会会衆派教会も使用されていますこの特定の信条は、2世紀から9世紀の間に開発されました。その中心的な教義は、三位一体創造主である教義です。この信条に見られるそれぞれの教義は、使徒継承時代の現在の声明にまでさかのぼることができますこの信条は、ローマの教会で洗礼の候補者のためのキリスト教の教義の要約として使用されたようです。[30]そのポイントは次のとおりです。

ニカイア信条は、主にアリウス派に対応してそれぞれ325年と381年ニカイア公会議コンスタンティノープル公会議で策定され[31] [32]、431年に第1エフェソス公会議によってキリスト教世界の普遍的な信条として承認された]

カルケドン信条で開発された、またはカルケドン公のクリード、カルケドン公会議451で、[34]によって拒否されても東洋の正統派[35]は、「inconfusedly、不変に、不可分、不可分に、2つの性質に認められるために、」キリストの教え: 1人の神と1人の人間、そして両方の性質は、それ自体は完璧ですが、それにもかかわらず、1人の人に完全に統合されています。[36]

アタナシオス信条「我々は、三位一体で唯一の神を崇拝し、ユニティでトリニティ、人を混乱もなく、除どちらも:ニカイアとカルケドンと同じステータスを持つと西洋の教会で受信氏は、物質を。」[37]

ほとんどのキリスト教徒(カトリック東方正教会東方正教会プロテスタントも同様)は信条の使用を受け入れ、上記の信条の少なくとも1つに同意します。[38]

多くの福音派プロテスタントは、信条の実体の一部またはすべてに同意している場合でも、信条を信仰の決定的な声明として拒否します。たとえば、ほとんどのバプテスト派「互いに拘束力のある権威ある信仰の自白を確立しようとはしなかったという点で」信条を使用していません。[39] :111 また、信条を拒否するには、にルーツを持つグループである回復運動のような、キリスト教会(キリストの弟子)カナダの福音キリスト教会、そしてキリストの教会[40] [41] :14–15  [42] :123 

イエス

イエスのさまざまな描写

キリスト教の中心的な信条は、神子でありメシアキリストであるイエス信じることです。クリスチャンは、メシアとしてのイエスが人類の救い主として神によって油そそがれたと信じており、イエスの到来は旧約聖書のメシアの予言成就であったと信じています。キリスト教のメシアの概念は、現代のユダヤ人の概念とは大きく異なります。キリスト教の中心的な信念は、イエスの死と復活を信じて受け入れることによって罪深い人間は神と和解することができ、それによって救いと約束が与えられるということです。永遠のいのち[43]

キリスト教の歴史の初期の数世紀にわたってイエス性質について多くの神学的論争がありましたが、一般に、キリスト教徒はイエスが神の化身であり、「真の神と真の人」(または完全に神と完全に人間の両方)であると信じています。完全に人間なったイエスは、人間の苦痛と誘惑に苦しみましたが、罪を犯しませんでし。完全に神として、彼は再び生き返りました。よると、新約聖書、彼は上昇し、死者の中から[44]上昇天に、父の右に座っている、[45]が、最終的になります戻る[46] 残りの果たすためにメシア預言を含め、死者の復活最後の審判、との最終設立神の王国

よると、正規の 福音書マシュールーク、イエスがされた構想、聖霊生まれてから聖母マリア幼い頃の福音書は古代で人気がありましたが、イエスの子供時代のほとんどは正規の福音書に記録されていませんそれに比べて、彼の成人期、特に彼の死の前の週は、彼の人生のその部分が最も重要であると信じられているので、新約聖書に含まれている福音書によく記録されていますイエスの宣教についての聖書の記述には、彼のバプテスマ奇跡が含まれます。、説教、教え、そして行為。

死と復活

はりつけの死表す、イエス十字架を、によって塗装ディエゴ・ベラスケス、C。1632。

クリスチャンは、イエスの復活が彼らの信仰の礎石であり(1コリント15を参照)、歴史上最も重要な出来事であると考えています。[47]キリスト教の信念の中で、イエスの死と復活は、キリスト教の教義と神学の多くが基づいている2つの中心的な出来事です。[48]新約聖書によれば、イエスは十字架につけられ、肉体的に死に、墓に埋葬され、3日後に死からよみがえられました。[49]

新約聖書は述べていくつかのイエスの復活後の外観、彼に別の機会にする12の使徒弟子、「一度に複数の500人の兄弟たち」を含む、[50]イエスの前に昇天天国へ。イエスの死と復活は、金曜日復活祭の日曜日を含む聖週間の間に特に重点を置いて、すべての礼拝でクリスチャンによって記念されます

The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life.[51]

キリスト教の教会は、ごくわずかな例外を除いて、イエスの復活についての新約聖書の記述を受け入れ、教えています。[52]現代の学者の中には、復活におけるイエスの追随者の信念を、歴史的なイエスの継続性と初代教会の宣言を確立するための出発点として使用している人もいます。[53]一部のリベラルなキリスト教徒は、文字通りの身体の復活を受け入れず[54] [55]、物語を豊かに象徴的で精神的に栄養を与える神話と見なしている。死と復活の主張をめぐる議論は多くの宗教的討論宗教間対話で起こります[56] Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."[57][58]

Salvation

The Law and the Gospel by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation.

Paul the Apostle, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.[59] For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise"[60][61] The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the "children of God", and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".[62][59]

現代のクリスチャン教会は、ユダヤ人と異邦人の両方が神の家族にどのようにいることができるかという問題よりも、人類が罪と死の普遍的な状態からどのように救われるかについてはるかに関心を持っている傾向があります。東方正教会の神学によれば、エイレナイオスの反復説によって提唱された贖罪についての彼らの理解に基づいて、イエスの死は身代金です。このリストア愛し、人類に差し伸べている神、とオファーの可能性との関係theosis CQ divinizationは、神が人類がなりたがっている人間のようなものになってきて。カトリックの教義によると、イエスの死は満足します the wrath of God, aroused by the offense to God's honor caused by human's sinfulness. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.[63] In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a substitutionary penalty carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law. Martin Luther taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by God's grace, sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism.[citation needed]

Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible.[64] In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus.[65]

Trinity

The Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.[66]

三位一体とは、一人の神[67]が(イエス・キリストに化身)、聖霊という3つの異なる永遠に共存する人からなるという教えを指します。一緒に、これら三人が時々呼ばれる神性[68] [69] [70]統一神性を示すために聖書で使用されている単一の用語はないが。[71]アタナシオス信条の言葉によると、キリスト教の信仰の初期の声明は、「父は神であり、息子は神であり、聖霊は神であるが、3つの神ではなく1つの神がある」。[72]それらは他のものとは異なります:父には源がなく、息子は父から生まれ、そして御霊は父から進んでいます。明確ではありますが、3人は存在中または操作中に互いに分割することはできません。一部のキリスト教徒はまた、神がで父として登場することを考えているが旧約聖書、彼が息子として登場することを合意された新約聖書、そしてまだ存在して聖霊としてマニフェストに継続されます。しかし、それでもなお、神はこれらの時代のそれぞれにおいてまだ三人として存在していました。[73]しかし、伝統的に旧約聖書に登場したのは息子であるという信念があります。たとえば、三位一体が芸術描かれている場合、息子は通常、独特の外観を持っているためです。キリストを識別する十字形の光輪、そしてエデンの園の描写では、これはまだ発生しない化身を楽しみにしています。一部では初期キリスト教 の石棺ロゴがひげ、と区別され、「でも、事前に存在し、彼は古代の出現することができます。」[74]

The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated[75] the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.[76][77]

この教義によれば、神は一人一人が全体の3分の1を持っているという意味で分割されていません。むしろ、各人は完全に神であると見なされます(ペリコレシスを参照)。違いは彼らの関係にあり、父は忘れられていません。息子は父から生まれました。そして、聖霊は父から、そして(西洋のキリスト教神学では)息子から進んでいます。この明らかな違いに関係なく、3人の「人」はそれぞれ永遠全能です。ユニテリアン・ユニバーサリズムエホバの証人モルモン教を含む他のキリスト教は、三位一体に関するこれらの見解を共有していません。

The Greek word trias[78][note 2] is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".[82] The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,[note 2] trinitas,[80] appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian.[83][84] In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen.[85]

Trinitarians

Trinitarianism denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism)。むしろ、三位一体は3人に1人の神として定義されています。[86]

反三位一体論

反三位一体論(またはantitrinitarianismはは)三位一体の教義を拒否神学を指します。など、様々なnontrinitarianビュー、養子様態論は、およそ紛争につながる、初代教会に存在していたキリスト論[87]反三位一体は、16世紀のプロテスタント改革におけるユニテリアン神学のグループの間[88]、18世紀の啓蒙において、第二次大覚醒の間に生じたいくつかのグループの間で、11世紀から13世紀の間カタリ派グノーシス主義再び現れた。目覚め of the 19th century, and most recently, in Oneness Pentecostal churches.

Eschatology

The 7th-century Khor Virap monastery in the shadow of Mount Ararat; Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301.[89]

The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth.

Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies.[90][91]

Death and afterlife

Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics,[92][93] Orthodox[94][95] and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death.

In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.[96] Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy").[97]

このようセブンスデーアドベンチスト、とホールドなどの一部のキリスト教団体、mortalism、人間の魂は、自然に不滅ではなく、身体の死と復活の間の中間状態の間に無意識であるという信念。これらのクリスチャンはまた、最後の審判の後、邪悪な者は永遠の苦痛に苦しむのではなく存在しなくなるという信念である消滅主義を保持しています。エホバの証人も同様の見方をしています。[98]

練習

Midnight Mass at a Catholic parish church in Woodside, New York City, U.S.
Show on the life of Jesus at Igreja da Cidade in São José dos Campos, affiliated to the Brazilian Baptist Convention.

特定のに応じて、キリスト教の宗派、プラクティスが含まれる洗礼聖体(聖体拝領または主の晩餐)、祈り(を含む主の祈り)、告白確認、埋葬の儀式、結婚の儀式や子供の宗教教育を。ほとんどの宗派は、定期的な共同礼拝を率いる聖職者叙階して ます。[99]

共同崇拝

サービス礼拝のは、一般的として知られているパターンやフォーム従う典礼を[注3] ユスティノスアントニヌスピウス皇帝への最初の謝罪 150年頃)で2世紀のキリスト教典礼について説明しました彼の説明は、キリスト教典礼の基本構造に関連しています。

And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen;そして、それぞれに分配があり、感謝が与えられたものの参加があり、欠席した人々には、執事によって一部が送られます。そして、うまくやる、そして喜んでいる彼らは、それぞれが適切だと思うものを与えます。集められたものは、孤児や未亡人、病気などで困っている人、絆を結んでいる人、見知らぬ人が私たちの間に滞在している人を助けてくれる大統領に預けられ、一言で言えば世話をします困っているすべての人の。[101]

Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.[note 4][102] Instruction is given based on these readings, called a sermon or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.[99] Psalms, hymns, or worship songs歌われるかもしれません。[103] [104]重要なごちそうの日などの特別なイベントのために、サービスを変えることができます[105]

Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and gave them wine saying, "This is my blood".[106] In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.[107] Some denominations such as Confessional Lutheran churches continue to practice 'closed communion'.[108]彼らは、その宗派または時には個々の教会ですでに団結している人々に聖体拝領を提供します。カトリック教徒はさらに、大罪の状態にない彼らのメンバーへの参加を制限します[109]他の多くのような教会、聖公会の聖餐カナダ合同教会、プラクティス「オープン・コミュニオン」彼らは団結するための手段として交わりではなく、終わりを表示するので、とは、参加するすべての信じるキリスト教徒を招待します。[110] [111]

秘跡または儀式

2nd-century description of the Eucharist

そして、この食品は、私たちの間に呼び出されEukharistia誰が参加するために許可されていないが、我々が教える事が真実であることを信じている人、そして罪の赦しのためにある洗濯で洗浄されたされた[聖体]、 、そして再生へ、そしてキリストが命じられたように生きているのは誰か。一般的なパンや一般的な飲み物ほどではないので、私たちはこれらを受け取ります。しかし、私たちの救い主イエス・キリストが神の言葉によって肉にされたのと同じように、私たちの救いのために肉と血の両方を持っていたので、同様に私たちは神の言葉の祈りによって祝福された食物を教えられました。変容によって私たちの血と肉が養われるのは、肉にされたそのイエスの肉と血です。

ユスティノス[101]

キリスト教の信念と実践において、聖餐式キリストによって制定され儀式であり恵みを授け神秘を構成します。この用語は、ギリシャ語のミステリーを翻訳するために使用されたラテン語のsacramentumに由来します。どの儀式が聖餐式であるか、そして行為が聖餐式であることが何を意味するかについての見解は、キリスト教の宗派や伝統によって異なります。[112]

聖餐の最も一般的な機能的定義は、それがキリストによって制定された外向きのしるしであり、キリストを通して内向きの精神的な恵みを伝えるというものです。最も広く受け入れられている2つの秘跡は、バプテスマと聖体です。 :しかし、キリスト教徒の大半はまた、5つの追加の秘跡認識確認傅膏機密東洋の伝統で)、神聖な受注(または按手)、苦行(または告白を、)病気の油注ぎ、そして心中有鬼(参照婚配機密を)。[112]

まとめると、これらは高等教会の伝統の教会によって認識されている7つの秘跡です。特に、カトリック東方正教会東方正教会独立カトリック旧カトリック、多くの英国国教会、および一部のルター派です。他のほとんどの宗派と伝統は、通常、洗礼と聖体のみを秘跡として認めていますが、クエーカー教徒などの一部のプロテスタントグループは秘跡の神学を拒否しています。[112]信者教会の教義に固執する福音派の教会は、主に「条例」という用語を使用します " to refer to baptism and communion.[113]

In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross.[114]

Liturgical calendar

カトリック教徒、東方キリスト教徒、ルター派、英国国教会、およびその他の伝統的なプロテスタントのコミュニティは、典礼の年の周りに崇拝を組み立てます。[115]典礼サイクルのシリーズに分割年の季節、その神学的強調各し、教会の装飾の様々な方法によって示されることができる祈りのモード、の色のParaments聖職者のために、[116]聖書の読み、説教のテーマ、さらには個人的にまたは家庭でしばしば観察されるさまざまな伝統や慣習。

西部キリスト教の典礼暦はカトリック教会のローマ典礼の周期に基づいており[116]、東方キリスト教徒はそれぞれの儀式の周期に基づいて類似の暦を使用しています。カレンダーは、イエス、メアリー、または聖人の人生の出来事を記念する厳粛さなどの聖なる日、および四旬節記念碑などの他の敬虔な出来事、または聖人を記念するより少ない祭りなど断食の期間を取っておきます。典礼の伝統に従わないキリスト教のグループは、クリスマスイースターPentecost: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations such as Quaker Christians make no use of a liturgical calendar.[117]

Symbols

The cross and the fish are two common symbols of Jesus Christ; letters of the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ Ichthys (fish) form an acronym for "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", which translates into English as "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior".

Christianity has not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians and some modern denominations, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols.

The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.[118][119] Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.[120] Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century.[121]

Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.[122] Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ichthys (fish) forming an acronym for the Greek phrase Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),[note 5] (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.[122]

他の主要なキリスト教のシンボルには、キーローのモノグラム(聖霊の象徴)、犠牲の子羊(キリストの犠牲を表す)、つる(キリスト教徒とキリストのつながりを象徴する)などがあります。これらはすべて新約聖書の一節に由来しています。[121]

洗礼

Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods are: by immersion; if immersion is total, by submersion; by affusion (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of infant baptism;[123][124][125][126] the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.[127][128] The Catholic Church also practices infant baptism,[129][130] usually by affusion, and utilizing the Trinitarian formula.[131]

Evangelical denominations adhering to the doctrine of the believers' Church, practice the believer's baptism, by immersion in water, after the new birth and a profession of faith.[132][133] For newborns, there is a ceremony called child dedication.[134]

Prayer

"... ‘Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil.’"

— The Lord's Prayer, Matthew 6:9–13, EHV[135]

In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer.[136] The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the Didache and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.[137][138]

In the second century Apostolic Tradition, Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray at seven fixed prayer times: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."[139] Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and prostrations have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church.[140] Breviaries such as the Shehimo and Agpeya are used by Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer.[141][142]

The Apostolic Tradition directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.[143]

Intercessory prayer is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons[Acts 9:40] and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people.[1Ki 17:19–22] In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah.[Jam 5:16–18] The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.[144]

The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.[145] The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous.[146]

カトリック教会のカテキズムによれば、「祈りとは、神に心と心を育てること、または神に良いことを求めることです。」[147]一般的な祈りの予約アングリカン伝統においては、設定された祈り、聖書の読み、及び賛美またはソン詩篇を含むサービスの設定順序を提供するガイドです。[148]西方キリスト教では、多くの場合、祈るとき、封建的な表彰式のように、両手が手のひらを合わせて前方に置かれますまた、手のひらを上にしてひじを入れた、古いオランスの姿勢を使用する場合もあります。

経典

The Bible is the sacred book in Christianity.

Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16 is theopneustos, which literally means "God-breathed".[149]

Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles inerrant. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version.[150][151][152] Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.

正教会、カトリック教会、プロテスタント教会で受け入れられている聖書本は多少異なり、ユダヤ人はヘブライ語聖書のみを正規として受け入れています。ただし、かなりの重複があります。これらのバリエーションは、伝統の範囲とこの主題について召集された評議会反映しています。旧約聖書のすべてのバージョンには、常にヘブライ語聖書の正典であるタナクの本が含まれています。タナクに加えて、カトリックと正教会の正典には、旧約聖書の一部として第二正典のも含まれています。これらの本はセプトゥアギンタ登場しますが、プロテスタントは外典と見なしています。しかし、それらは、それらの概念の歴史的期間に使用された単語、文法、および構文の理解を知らせるのに役立つ重要な歴史的文書であると考えられています。聖書のいくつかのバージョンには、旧約聖書と新約聖書の間に別の外典セクションが含まれています。[153]もともとコイネーギリシャ語書かれた新約聖書には、すべての主要な教会によって合意された27冊の本が含まれてます。

現代の学問は聖書に関して多くの問題を提起しました。一方で欽定訳は、その印象的な英語は、実際にはそれが今度は「私たちが用意して最悪の写本の一つであり、単一の12世紀の写本に基づいていたエラスムスギリシャ語聖書から翻訳された、散文の多くによって保持されています私たちに」。[154]過去数百年の多くの奨学金は、元のテキストを再構築するために異なる原稿を比較することに費やされてきました。もう1つの問題は、いくつかの本が偽造と見なされていることです。 1テモテ2 [155]の女性が「沈黙し、従順である」という差し止め命令は、パウロの信者による偽造であると多くの人が考えています。これは、コリントの信徒への手紙第14章[156]の同様の言い回しですこれはパウロによるものと考えられており、さまざまな写本のさまざまな場所に登場し、もともとは写字家による余白のメモであると考えられています。[154]コリントの信徒への手紙第11章2–16節のように、女性が「祈ったり預言したりするとき」に髪の毛を覆うように指示されているコリントの信徒への手紙第1節の他の節[157]はこの節と矛盾します。

A final issue with the Bible is the way in which books were selected for inclusion in the New Testament. Other gospels have now been recovered, such as those found near Nag Hammadi in 1945, and while some of these texts are quite different from what Christians have been used to, it should be understood that some of this newly recovered Gospel material is quite possibly contemporaneous with, or even earlier than, the New Testament Gospels. The core of the Gospel of Thomas, in particular, may date from as early as AD 50 (although some major scholars contest this early dating),[158] and if so would provide an insight into the earliest gospel texts that underlie the canonical Gospels, texts that are mentioned in Luke 1:1–2. The Gospel of Thomas contains much that is familiar from the canonical Gospels—verse 113, for example ("The Father's Kingdom is spread out upon the earth, but people do not see it"),[159] is reminiscent of Luke 17:20–21[160][161]—and the Gospel of John, with a terminology and approach that is suggestive of what was later termed Gnosticism, has recently been seen as a possible response to the Gospel of Thomas, a text that is commonly labeled proto-Gnosticそれで、奨学金は現在、神秘的な憶測と経験と教会の秩序の探求との間の初期の教会における関係を、新しく発見されたテキストを分析することによって、標準的なテキストをさらに精査することによって、そして新約聖書のテキストの正規の状態への通過の検査。

いくつかの宗派は持っている追加の標準的な聖書を含め、聖書を超え、標準の作品末日聖徒の動き神の原理統一教会を[162]

カトリックの解釈

サンピエトロ大聖堂バチカン市国、世界最大の教会であり、カトリック教会のシンボルです

古代では、聖書釈義の2つの学校がアレクサンドリアアンティオキアで発展しましOrigenによって例示されたアレクサンドリアの解釈は、寓話的聖書を読む傾向がありましたが、Antiocheneの解釈は文字通りの意味に固執し、他の意味(理論と呼ばれる)は文字通りの意味に基づいている場合にのみ受け入れられると考えました。[163]

カトリック神学は、文字通りと精神的な2つの聖書の感覚を区別します。[164]

リテラル理解経典の意味は、聖書の言葉によって伝え意味です。精神的な感覚は、さらにに細分化されます。

聖書釈義に関しては、健全な解釈の規則に従って、カトリック神学は次のように成り立っています。

  • 他のすべての聖典の感覚が文字通りに基づいているという差し止め命令[165] [166]
  • 福音書の歴史は絶対的かつ絶えず保持されなければならない[167]
  • その聖書は、「教会全体の生活の伝統」の中に読まれなければならない[168]
  • その「解釈の仕事はローマ司教あるペテロの後継者との交わりで司教たちに委ねられました」。[169]

プロテスタントの解釈

聖書の特質

Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of sola scriptura--that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation;[170][171] other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of prima scriptura which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.[170][172]プロテスタントは、聖書自体がその意味を明確にしている(または「目立つ」)ので、普通の信者が聖書を十分に理解できると特徴的に信じています。マルティン・ルターは、神の助けがなければ、聖書は「暗闇に包まれる」と信じていました。[173]彼は「聖書の一つの明確で単純な理解」を提唱した。[173] ジョン・カルヴァンは、「彼らのガイドとして聖霊に従わないことを拒否するすべての人は、聖書の中に明確な光を見いだす」と書いています。[174]これに関連しているのは「効力」であり、聖書は人々を信仰に導くことができます。そして「十分性」とは、救いを得てクリスチャン生活を送るために知る必要のあるすべてのものが聖書に含まれていることです。[175]

Original intended meaning of Scripture

Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method.[176] The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text.[177] This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.[178]歴史的・文法的方法は、1つの本来の意味とテキストの重要性を区別します。テキストの重要性には、テキストまたはアプリケーションのその後の使用が含まれます。元の箇所は、単一の意味または意味しか持たないと見なされています。ミルトン・S・テリーが言ったように、「文法史的説明の基本原則は、単語と文が同じ関係で1つの重要性しか持たないということです。この原則を無視した瞬間、私たちは不確実性と推測の海に漂います。 。」[179]技術的に言えば、文法的・歴史的解釈の方法は、その解釈に照らしてパッセージの重要性を決定することとは異なります。一緒に取られて、両方とも用語(聖書)解釈学を定義します。[177] Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology.[180]

History

Early Christianity

Apostolic Age

Chapel of Saint Ananias, Damascus, Syria, an early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD.[181]
An early circular ichthys symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel, Ephesus, Asia Minor.
The Monastery of St. Matthew, located atop Mount Alfaf in northern Iraq, is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.[182]
Kadisha Valley, Lebanon, home to some of the earliest Christian monasteries in the world.

Christianity developed during the 1st century CE as a Jewish Christian sect of Second Temple Judaism.[183][184] An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John.[185]

ユダヤ人のキリスト教はすぐに異邦人の神を恐れる人々を引き付け、ユダヤ人の命令を厳守することを主張したユダヤ人の宗教的展望に問題を提起しました。パウロは、することによって、その救いを主張することでこれを解決し、キリストへの信仰、そして参加彼らの洗礼によって彼の死と復活では、足り。[186]最初、彼は初期のキリスト教徒を迫害したが、回心の経験の後、彼は異邦人に説教し、ユダヤ教とは別に、新たなキリスト教のアイデンティティに形成的影響を与えたと見なされている。最終的に、彼のユダヤ人の習慣からの逸脱は、独立した宗教としてのキリスト教の確立をもたらすでしょう。[187]

ニカイア信条時代

この形成期の後には、キリスト教徒がキリストの使徒の後継者と見なす初期の司教たちが続きました150年から、キリスト教の教師たちは、信仰を擁護することを目的とした神学的で謝罪的な作品を制作し始めました。これらの著者は次のように知られている教父、およびそれらの研究が呼び出される聖師父学著名な初期の教父には、アンティオキアのイグナチオポリュカルポスユスティノスエイレナイオステルトゥリアヌスアレクサンドリアのクレメンスオリゲネスが含まれます。

キリスト教徒の迫害は、ユダヤ人とローマの当局の両方によって断続的かつ小規模に行われ、ローマの行動は紀元64年のローマ大火の時に始まりました新約聖書で報告されたユダヤ人の権威の下での初期の死刑執行の例には聖ステパノ[使徒7:59]ゼベディーの息子であるヤコブの死が含まれます[行為12:2] Decian迫害は、第一帝国全体の競合であった[188]の布告場合デキウス250 ADにローマ神に犠牲を実行する(ユダヤ人を除く)ローマ帝国の全員を必要としました。Diocletianic迫害 beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan.

原始正教会のキリスト教が支配的になりつつある一方で、異教の宗派も同時に存在し、根本的に異なる信念を持っていました。グノーシス主義のキリスト教は、罪の赦しではなく、幻想と悟りに基づいデュオセスティックな教義を発展させました。発展途上の正典と重複する聖書はほんのわずかであり、ほとんどのグノーシス文書グノーシス福音書は最終的に異端と見なされ、主流のキリスト教徒によって抑圧されました。異邦人キリスト教徐々に分裂したため、ユダヤ人キリスト教徒はモーセの律法に従い続けました。, including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the Jewish–Christian gospels would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity.

Spread and acceptance in Roman Empire

Christendom by A.D. 600 after its spread to Africa and Europe from the Middle East.
An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the Deësis mosaic at the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

キリスト教の広がりアラム語沿っ-speaking人々地中海沿岸もの内陸部に対して、ローマ帝国にし、その超えたパルティア以降サーサーン朝を含め、メソポタミアこれらの帝国によって異なる時間に及び様々な程度に支配されました、 。[189]アフリカにおけるキリスト教の存在は、エジプトでは1世紀半ばに始まり、カルタゴ周辺の地域では2世紀の終わりまでに始まったマルコ福音伝道者アレクサンドリア教会を始めたと主張されています in about 43 CE; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church.[190][191][192] Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo.

King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314,[89][193][194] thus Armenia became the first officially Christian state. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.[195]

コンスタンティヌス1世は若い頃にキリスト教に触れ、彼の生涯を通じて彼の宗教への支持は高まり、彼の死の床での洗礼で最高潮に達しました。[196]彼の治世中、キリスト教徒の国家認可の迫害は、311年の寛容令と313年のミラノ勅令で終結した。その時点で、キリスト教は依然として少数派の信念であり、おそらくローマ人口のわずか5パーセントであった。 。[197]彼の顧問マルドニオスの影響を受けて、コンスタンティンの甥のジュリアンはキリスト教を抑圧しようとして失敗した。[198] 380年2月27日、テオドシウス1世グラティアヌス、およびValentinian II established Nicene Christianity as the State church of the Roman Empire.[199] As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.[200]

Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and many other Protestant churches.[201][38] Nicaea was the first of a series of ecumenical councils, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology.[202] The Church of the East did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors (Assyrian Church of the East).

繁栄と文化的な生活の面では、ビザンチン帝国は中のピークの一つであったキリスト教の歴史キリスト教の文明[203]コンスタンティノープルの主要都市に残っキリスト教の世界を大きさ、富、そして文化の中で。[204] 古典的なギリシャ哲学への新たな関心と、ギリシャ語での文学作品の増加があった。[205]ビザンチン美術と文学はヨーロッパで卓越した地位を占めており、この時期ビザンチン美術の西洋への文化的影響は甚大であり、長期にわたる重要性を持っていた。[206]後の上昇Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa and the Nubian Church in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).

Early Middle Ages

衰退として西ローマ帝国の秋ローマ教皇は、に見える最初の、政治的なプレーヤーになった教皇レオとの外交取引フン族ヴァンダル[207]教会はまた、さまざまな部族の間で長期間の宣教活動と拡大を始めた。ながらArianistsは(参照異教徒を実施するための死刑を制定フェルデンの虐殺の後なるもの、例えば、)カトリックの間でも広がりハンガリーゲルマン[207]ケルトBaltic and some Slavic peoples.

Around 500, St. Benedict set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries.[207] Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe,[207] and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century.

7世紀、イスラム教徒はシリアエルサレムを含む)、北アフリカ、スペイン征服し、キリスト教徒の一部をイスラム教に改宗させ、残りを別の法的地位に置きました。イスラム教徒の成功の一部は、ペルシャとの数十年にわたる紛争でビザンチン帝国が疲弊したことによるものでした[208]カロリング朝の指導者の台頭とともに、8世紀に始まりパパシーフランク王国でより大きな政治的支援を求めた[209]

The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration.[210] In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.[211] In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny.[212]

High and Late Middle Ages

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade.

西洋では、11世紀以降から、一部の古い大聖堂の学校は大学になった(例えばを参照してください、オックスフォード大学パリ大学ボローニャ大学)。以前は、高等教育は僧侶尼僧が率いるキリスト教の大聖堂学校または修道院学校Scholae monasticaeの領域でした。そのような学校の証拠は西暦6世紀にまでさかのぼります。[213]これらの新しい大学は、カリキュラムを拡大して、聖職者、弁護士、公務員、および医師のための学術プログラムを含めました。[214]大学は一般的に中世のキリスト教の設定に起源を持つ機関と見なされています。[215] [216] [217]

ヨーロッパ中の「ニュータウン」の台頭に伴い、托鉢修道会が設立され、奉献生活を修道院から新しい都会の環境にもたらしました二つの主要な托鉢動きがあったフランシスコ[218]ドミニカ[219]によって設立された聖フランシスコ聖ドミニクをそれぞれ。どちらの命令も、ヨーロッパの偉大な大学の発展に大きく貢献しました。別の新しい注文はシトー会でした, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals.[220]

Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the impulse to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.[221] From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the Crusades were launched.[222] These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade.[223]

キリスト教会は、以下のような結果に7世紀から13世紀の間の内部葛藤を経験分裂いわゆるラテンや間西洋のキリスト教のブランチ(カトリック教会)、[224]東を、主にギリシャ、ブランチ(東方正教会) 。双方は、多くの行政的、典礼的、教義的問題、最も顕著なのは教皇の覇権に対する東方正教会の反対について意見が一致しなかった[225] [226]2リヨン公会議(1274)とフィレンツェ公会議 (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches.

In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe.[227][228]

周りの1184年からは、反対十字軍以下のカタリ派の異端、[229]広くと呼ばれる様々な機関、異端審問は、抑制することを目的に設立された異端とを通してキリスト教内の宗教的教義の統一を確保し、変換し、起訴。[230]

プロテスタント改革と対抗宗教改革

マルティン・ルターは1517年に95か条の論題宗教改革開始しました

The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses 1517 against the sale of indulgences.[231] Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches.[232]

Other reformers like Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices.[231] The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved.[233]

Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations.

Michelangelo's 1498–99 Pietà in St. Peter's Basilica; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the Renaissance.[234][235][236]

部分的にプロテスタント改革に対応して、カトリック教会は対抗宗教改革またはカトリック改革として知られている改革と更新の実質的なプロセスに従事しました[237]トレントの評議会は、カトリックの教義を明らかにし、再集合しました。その後の数世紀の間に、カトリックとプロテスタントの間の競争は、ヨーロッパ諸国間の政治的闘争と深く絡み合うようになりました。[238]

一方、1492年にクリストファーコロンブスがアメリカを発見したことで、新たな宣教活動の波が生まれました。部分的には宣教師の熱意からですが、ヨーロッパの勢力による植民地拡大の推進力の下で、キリスト教は南北アメリカ、オセアニア、東アジア、サハラ以南のアフリカに広がりました。

ヨーロッパ全体で、改革によって引き起こされた分裂は、宗教的暴力の発生とヨーロッパでの別々の州教会の設立につながりました。ルーテル主義は、現在のドイツ、リヴォニア、スカンジナビアの北部、中部、東部に広がりました英国国教会は1534年にイギリスで設立されました。カルヴァン主義長老派教会などのその品種は、スコットランド、オランダ、ハンガリー、スイス、フランスで導入されました。アルミニウス主義は、オランダとフリジアで信者を獲得しました。最終的に、これらの違いは紛争の発生につながりました in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration.[239]

新プラトン主義の復活において、ルネサンスのヒューマニストはキリスト教を拒絶しませんでした。それどころか、ルネサンスの最も偉大な作品の多くはそれに捧げられ、カトリック教会はルネサンス芸術の多くの作品を後援しました[240]ほとんどではないにしても、多くの新しい芸術は教会によって、または教会に献身的に委託された。[240]一部の学者や歴史家はの上昇に寄与したにキリスト教を属性科学革命[241] [242] [243] [244] [245]影響を受けた多くのよく知られた歴史上の人物西洋の科学はとして自身がキリスト教のように考えられてNicolaus Copernicus,[246] Galileo Galilei,[247] Johannes Kepler,[248] Isaac Newton[249] and Robert Boyle.[250]

Post-Enlightenment

A depiction of Madonna and Child in a 19th-century Kakure Kirishitan Japanese woodcut.

知られている時代にはグレート発散西、中、啓蒙の時代科学革命の偉大な社会の変化をもたらし、キリスト教は、種々の形態に直面した懐疑論と一定のモダンな政治的イデオロギーなどのバージョンなど、社会主義自由主義[251]イベントは、単なるからの範囲であった反教権主義など、キリスト教に対する暴力的な爆発にフランス革命時のフランスのdechristianization[252]スペイン市民戦争、および特定のマルクス主義 movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism.[253][254][255][256]

Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourgは、特にヨーロッパのカトリックに注目し、ヨーロッパ諸国の4つのモデルを特定します。ベルギー、スペイン、オーストリアなどの伝統的なカトリック大多数の国では、ある程度、宗教的コミュニティと国家的コミュニティはほぼ同じです。文化の共生と分離は、ポーランド、アイルランド共和国、スイスで見られます。これらの国はすべて、宗派が競合しています。競争はドイツ、オランダ、そして再びスイスで見られます。これらの国は少数派のカトリック人口を抱えており、多かれ少なかれ国と同一視されています。最後に、宗教(特にカトリック)と国家との分離は、国家がカトリック教会の権威に積極的に反対しているフランスとイタリアでかなりの程度見られます。[257]

国民国家の形成とウルトラモンタニズムの複合要因は、特にドイツとオランダだけでなく、はるかに少ない程度でイギリスでも[258]、しばしばカトリック教会、組織、信者に国家の国家的要求から選択することを余儀なくさせた。そして教会の権威、特に教皇庁。この競合はヘッドに来た第1バチカン公会議、およびドイツに直接つながる文化闘争[259]のリーダーシップの下で、リベラル派とプロテスタントビスマルクが厳しくカトリックの発現と組織を制限するために管理しました。

Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,[260] particularly in Czechia and Estonia,[261] while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general,[262][263] with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians,[264] most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.

Demographics

With around 2.4 billion adherents,[265][266] split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[267] The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on Earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America.[268] According to a 2015 Pew Research Center研究によると、今後40年以内に、キリスト教は最大の宗教であり続けるでしょう。そして2050年までに、キリスト教徒の人口は30億人を超えると予想されています。[269] :60 

世界最大のカトリック人口を抱えるブラジルでのキリスト教の行列[267]
トリニティ日曜日ロシアロシア正教会は、共産主義の崩壊以来、偉大な復活を経験しています。[270]

According to some scholars, Christianity ranks at first place in net gains through religious conversion.[271][272] As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.[273][274][275] The so-called popular Protestantism[note 6]世界で最も急速に成長している宗教カテゴリの1つです。[276] [277]それにもかかわらず、グローバルキリスト教研究センターのトッド・ジョンソンによれば、カトリックも2050年までに16億3000万に成長し続けるだろう。[278]アフリカだけでも、2015年までに2億3000万人のアフリカのカトリック教徒が住むことになります。[279]そして、2018年にアフリカの人口が2100年までに45億人に達すると国連が予測した場合(2004年に予測された20億人ではない)、他の宗教団体と同様に、カトリックは確かに成長するでしょう。[280]ピュー研究所によると、アフリカには2050年までに11億人のアフリカ人キリスト教徒が住むと予想されている[269]

2010年には、世界のキリスト教徒人口の87%がキリスト教徒が過半数を占める国に住んでいたのに対し、世界のキリスト教徒人口の13%はキリスト教徒が少数派である国に住んでいました。[16]キリスト教は、ヨーロッパ、南北アメリカ、オセアニア、および南アフリカで支配的な宗教です。[16]アジアでは、アルメニア、キプロス、ジョージア、東ティモール、フィリピンで支配的な宗教です。[281]しかし、米国北部および西部を含む一部の地域[282]、オセアニアの一部の地域(オーストラリア[283]およびニュージーランド[284])、北ヨーロッパ(英国を含む[285])では減少しています Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration,[286][287][288] and Macau[289]).

The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the southern United States,[290] and the province of Alberta, Canada,[291] but the percentage is decreasing. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been stable or even increased in the Central and Eastern European countries.[292] Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentage in China,[293][267] other Asian countries,[267][294] Sub-Saharan Africa,[267][295] Latin America,[267] Eastern Europe[292] [270] 北アフリカマグレブ)、[296] [295] 湾岸協力会議諸国、[267]およびオセアニア[295]

Despite the declining numbers, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western World, where 70% are Christians.[16] Christianity remains the largest religion in Western Europe, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018.[297] A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians.[16][298][299][300] By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities.[267]

しかし、世界の大部分、特にアフリカ、ラテンアメリカ、アジアで定着しているカリスマ運動はたくさんあります。[301] [302] [303] [304] [305] 1900年以来、主に回心により、プロテスタントはアフリカ、アジア、オセアニア、ラテンアメリカに急速に広まった。[306] 1960年から2000年にかけて、報告された福音派プロテスタントの数の世界的な増加は、世界の人口率の3倍、イスラム教の2倍に増加した[307]歴史家によると、ジェフリー・ブレイニーからメルボルン大学、1960年代以降、イスラム教からキリスト教への、主に福音派ペンテコステ派への改宗の数が大幅に増加しました[308]セントメリーズ大学が行った研究では、1020万について推定イスラム教徒 キリスト教に改宗2015年に、[296]キリスト教へのイスラム教徒改宗のかなりの数は、アフガニスタン、で見つけることができるの調査によると、[296] [309]アゼルバイジャン、[296] [309]中央アジア(カザフスタン、キルギスタン、およびその他の国を含む)、[296] [309]インドネシア、[296] [309]マレーシア、[296][309] the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey,[310] and other countries),[296][309] North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco,[311][312] and Tunisia[313]),[296][309] Sub-Saharan Africa,[296][309] and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United kingdom, the United States, and other western countries).[296][309] It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Aisa, according to a report by the Singapore Management University, more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them are young and have a university degree.[294] According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam there is a "rapid expansion" of Christianity in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea.[294] According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore,[314] Indonesia, Japan,[315] Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea,[16] and Vietnam.[316]

In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.[317] Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,[318] while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.[319] Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.[320] According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more,[321] Conversely about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians; according to the World Values Survey, about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly.[321]

Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic),[322] Tuvalu (Reformed), Tonga (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran),[323][324][325] Costa Rica (Catholic),[326] the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran),[327] England (Anglican),[328] Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),[329] Greece (Greek Orthodox),[330] Iceland (Lutheran),[331] Liechtenstein (Catholic),[332] Malta (Catholic),[333] Monaco (Catholic),[334] and Vatican City (Catholic).[335]

There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination.[336]

Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2011 data)[337]
Tradition Followers % of the Christian population % of the world population Follower dynamics Dynamics in- and outside Christianity
Catholic Church 1,329,610,000 50.1 15.9 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Protestantism 900,640,000 36.7 11.6 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Orthodoxy 260,380,000 11.9 3.8 Increase Growing Decrease Declining
Other Christianity 28,430,000 1.3 0.4 Increase Growing Increase Growing
Christianity 2,382,750,000 100 31.7 Increase Growing Steady Stable
Christians (self-described) by region (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[338][339][340]
Region Christians % Christian
Europe 558,260,000 75.2
Latin AmericaCaribbean 531,280,000 90.0
Sub-Saharan Africa 517,340,000 62.9
Asia Pacific 286,950,000 7.1
North America 266,630,000 77.4
Middle EastNorth Africa 12,710,000 3.7
World 2,173,180,000 31.5
Regional median ages of Christians compared with overall median ages (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)[341]
Christian median age in region (years) Regional median age (years)
World 30 29
Sub-Saharan Africa 19 18
Latin America-Caribbean 27 27
Asia-Pacific 28 29
Middle East-North Africa 29 24
North America 39 37
Europe 42 40


The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.[342]


Churches and denominations

The four primary divisions of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Protestantism.[42]: 14 [343] A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, which has its origins in the East–West Schism (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western or Eastern World Christianity has also stood out, for example, African-initiated churches. However, there are other present[344] and historical[345] Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.

There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations.[346] The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant (including Anglican) denominations.[347]

(Not shown are non-Nicene, nontrinitarian, and some restorationist denominations.)

Catholic Church

Pope Francis, the current leader of the Catholic Church.

The Catholic Church consists of those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance.[348][349] Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.[350][351] Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities[352][353] and works towards reconciliation among all Christians.[352] The Catholic faith is detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.[354][355]

Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass.[356] The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions.[357] Its teaching includes Divine Mercy, sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasises voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates thousands of Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world.[358] Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations.

Canon law (Latin: jus canonicum)[359] is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.[360] The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system[361] and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West,[362][363] while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris.

As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution,[364] it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization.[365] The 2,834 sees[366] are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments.[367] With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1%[16] all Christians as well as one sixth of the world's population.[368][369][370] Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions.

Eastern Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.[372] Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.

Eastern Orthodox theology is based on holy tradition which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven Ecumenical Councils, the Scriptures, and the teaching of the Church Fathers. The church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission,[373] and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles.[374] It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Its patriarchates, reminiscent of the pentarchy, and other autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation. It recognises seven major sacraments, of which the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in synaxis. The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the God-bearer, honoured in devotions.

Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 230 million adherents, although Protestants collectively outnumber them, substantially.[16][14][375] As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East.[376]

Oriental Orthodoxy

Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox.

The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology.

The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches.[377] These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically.[378] These churches are generally not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.[379] Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide.[380][381][382]

As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East and India.[383][384] An Eastern Christian body of autocephalous churches, its bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination, and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils.[385]

Assyrian Church of the East

A 6th-century Nestorian church, St. John the Arab, in the Assyrian village of Geramon in Hakkari, southeastern Turkey.

The Assyrian Church of the East, with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent Eastern Christian denomination which claims continuity from the Church of the East—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the Chaldean Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Pope. It is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East. Largely aniconic and not in communion with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity, and uses the East Syriac Rite in its liturgy.[386]

Its main spoken language is Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic, and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians. It is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient Assyria. Its hierarchy is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops, while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia).[387]

The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964. It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon—the Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.[388]

Protestantism

In 1521, the Edict of Worms condemned Martin Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.[389] This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the Reformation. Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin. The 1529 Protestation at Speyer against being excommunicated gave this party the name Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are referred to as the Reformed tradition.[390] Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields.[391]

The Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organized in the Anglican Communion. Some, but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.[392][393]

Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the "Magisterial Reformation". On the other hand, groups such as the Anabaptists, who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the Radical Reformation, which though sometimes protected under Acts of Toleration, do not trace their history back to any state church. They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—credobaptism (Anabaptists include the Amish, Apostolic, Mennonites, Hutterites, River Brethren and Schwarzenau Brethren/German Baptist groups.)[394][395][396][397]

The term Protestant also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions. In the 18th century, for example, Methodism grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical revival movement.[398] Several Pentecostal and non-denominational churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of Methodism.[399] Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior",[400] which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth,[401] they often refer to themselves as being born-again.[402][403]

Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination.[369] Estimates vary, mainly over the question of which denominations to classify as Protestant. Yet, the total number of Protestant Christians is generally estimated between 800 million and 1 billion, corresponding to nearly 40% of world's Christians.[14][273][404][405] The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. Adventists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed (Calvinists),[406] Lutherans, Methodists, Moravians/Hussites, and Pentecostals.[273] Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, neo-charismatic, independent, and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.[407]

Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and creedalism of other Christian communities[408] by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.[409]

Restorationism

A 19th-century drawing of Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery receiving the Aaronic priesthood from John the Baptist. Latter Day Saints believe that the Priesthood ceased to exist after the death of the apostles and therefore needed to be restored.

The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.[410] A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy.[411] In Asia, Iglesia ni Cristo is a known restorationist religion that was established during the early 1900s.

Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[412] American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada,[413][414] Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.[415]

Other

Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century;[416] the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example such a denomination that arose in this era.[417] They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism.[418]

Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church,[419] include the word Catholic in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church, but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See.[420]

Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobors and Molokans, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism.[421][422]

Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.[423]

Esoteric Christians regard Christianity as a mystery religion[424][425] and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices,[426][427] hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.[428][429] Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the Rosicrucian Fellowship, the Anthroposophical Society, and Martinism.

Nondenominational Christianity or non-denominational Christianity consists of churches which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities[408] by not formally aligning with a specific Christian denomination.[430] Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, with followers organizing themselves simply as "Christians" and "Disciples of Christ",[note 7][430][431] but many typically adhere to evangelical Christianity.[432][433][434]

Influence on Western culture

Clockwise from top: Sistine chapel ceiling, Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox wedding, Christ the Redeemer statue, Nativity scene

Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.[435]

Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.[436] Until the Age of Enlightenment,[437] Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science.[436][438] Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature, and so on.

Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,[439] and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting.[215] Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many Catholic clergy,[440] Jesuits in particular,[441][442] have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science.[443] Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.[444] The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare,[445] founding hospitals,[446] economics (as the Protestant work ethic),[447][448][449] architecture,[450] politics,[451] literature,[452] personal hygiene (ablution),[453][454][455] and family life.[456][457]

Eastern Christians (particularly Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayad and the Abbasid, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic.[458][459][460] They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.[461][462][463]

Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy,[464] science and technology,[465][466][467][468] medicine,[469] fine arts and architecture,[470] politics, literatures, music,[471] and business.[472] According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference.[473]

Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion.[474]

Postchristianity is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies.[475]

Ecumenism

The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.[476]

Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.[477][478] One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics.[477]

The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[479] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.[480]

The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom.[476]

The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions.[481] The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".[481] The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.[482]

Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054;[483] the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;[484] and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.[485]

Criticism, persecution, and apologetics

Criticism

A copy of the Summa Theologica by Thomas Aquinas, a famous Christian apologetic work.

Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g. Matthew 15:1–20 and Mark 7:1–23).[486] In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.[487] Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit to the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.[488][489] One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote The True Word, a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.[490][491][492] In response, the church father Origen published his treatise Contra Celsum, or Against Celsus, a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.[493][492]

By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.[494][495] The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume Adversus Christianos as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus.[496][497]

By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.[498] In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.[499] In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.[500]

Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism.[501] New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in The Christ Myth Theory and its problems.[502]

Persecution

Christians fleeing their homes in the Ottoman Empire, circa 1922. Many Christians were persecuted and/or killed during the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Assyrian genocide.[503]

Christians are one of the most persecuted religious group in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia.[504] In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution"[505] with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.[506][507] In 2019, a report[508][509] commissioned by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America,[clarification needed] among others,[510] and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.[509] This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians.[19]

Apologetics

Christian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός apologētikos) comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι apologeomai, meaning "(I) speak in defense of".[511] Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work.[512][513] Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.[514][515] He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality.[516] The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his Questions of Truth, discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God.[517]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, Acts 9:2, Acts 19:9 and Acts 19:23). Some English translations of the New Testament capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated'[21] whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way',[22] 'that way'[23] or 'the way of the Lord'.[24] The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".[25]
  2. ^ a b The Latin equivalent, from which English trinity is derived,[79][better source needed] is trinitas[80] though Latin also borrowed Greek trias verbatim.[81]
  3. ^ Frequently a distinction is made between "liturgical" and "non-liturgical" churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are described as "non-liturgical".[100]
  4. ^ Often these are arranged on an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
  5. ^ Iesous Christos Theou Hyios Soter would be a more complete transliteration; in Greek though, the daseia or spiritus asper was not—commonly—marked in the majuscule script of the time.
  6. ^ A flexible term, defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.
  7. ^ The first Nondenominational Christian churches which emerged through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement are tied to associations such as the Churches of Christ or the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[430][431]

References

  1. ^ "World's largest religion by population is still Christianity". Countrymeters. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  2. ^ The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. December 2012. "The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Major Religious Groups as of 2010." DC: Pew Research Center. Article.
  3. ^ Woodhead 2004, p. n.p
  4. ^ S. T. Kimbrough, ed. (2005). Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice. St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-301-4.
  5. ^ Religions in Global Society. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006
  6. ^ Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
  7. ^ Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."
  8. ^ Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p. 111: three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
  9. ^ Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
  10. ^ Muslim-Christian Relations. Amsterdam University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-90-5356-938-2. Retrieved 18 October 2007. The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new converts. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the role of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.
  11. ^ Fred Kammer (1 May 2004). Doing Faith Justice. Paulist Press. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-8091-4227-9. Retrieved 18 October 2007. Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for pilgrims, orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern "large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large."
  12. ^ Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement. Chalice Press. March 1994. ISBN 978-0-8272-0463-8. Retrieved 18 October 2007. In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.
  13. ^ "Christian Traditions". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 19 December 2011. About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic (50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world's Christians.
  14. ^ a b c "Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050" (PDF). Center for the Study of Global Christianity.
  15. ^ Peter, Laurence (17 October 2018). "Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters". BBC. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Analysis (19 December 2011). "Global Christianity". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
  17. ^ Pew Research Center
  18. ^ "Christian persecution 'at near genocide levels'". BBC News. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  19. ^ a b Wintour, Patrick. "Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide' in Middle East – report". The Guardian. 2 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  20. ^ Larry Hurtado (17 August 2017 ), "Paul, the Pagans’ Apostle"
  21. ^ Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary on Acts 19, http://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
  22. ^ Jubilee Bible 2000
  23. ^ American King James Version
  24. ^ Douai-Rheims Bible
  25. ^ Gill, J., Gill's Exposition of the Bible, commentary on Acts 19:23 http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm accessed 8 October 2015
  26. ^ E. Peterson (1959), "Christianus." In: Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis, publisher: Herder, Freiburg, pp. 353–72
  27. ^ Elwell & Comfort 2001, pp. 266, 828.
  28. ^ Olson, The Mosaic of Christian Belief.
  29. ^ Tayviah, Frederick K. D. (1995). Why Do Bad Things Keep on Happening?. CSS Publishing. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-55673-979-8.
  30. ^ Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition.
  31. ^ ""We Believe in One God....": The Nicene Creed and Mass". Catholics United for the Fath. February 2005. Retrieved 16 June 2014.
  32. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion, "Arianism".
  33. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Council of Ephesus".
  34. ^ Christian History Institute, First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon.
  35. ^ Peter Theodore Farrington (February 2006). "The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon". Glastonbury Review (113). Archived from the original on 19 June 2008.
  36. ^ Pope Leo I, Letter to Flavian
  37. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Athanasian Creed".
  38. ^ a b "Our Common Heritage as Christians". The United Methodist Church. Archived from the original on 14 January 2006. Retrieved 31 December 2007.
  39. ^ Avis, Paul (2002) The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions, SPCK, London, ISBN 0-281-05246-8 paperback
  40. ^ White, Howard A. The History of the Church.
  41. ^ Cummins, Duane D. (1991). A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (Revised ed.). St Louis, MO: Chalice Press. ISBN 978-0-8272-1425-5.
  42. ^ a b Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4
  43. ^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible, pp. 513, 649.
  44. ^ Acts 2:24, 2:31–32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40–41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30–31, Romans 10:9, 1 Cor. 15:15, 6:14, 2 Cor. 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1 Thess. 11:10, Heb. 13:20, 1 Pet. 1:3, 1:21
  45. ^ s:Nicene Creed
  46. ^ Acts 1:9–11
  47. ^ Hanegraaff. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity.
  48. ^ "The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian". Australian Catholic University National. Archived from the original on 1 September 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2007.
  49. ^ Jn. 19:30–31 Mk. 16:1 16:6
  50. ^ 1Cor 15:6
  51. ^ John, 5:24, 6:39–40, 6:47, 10:10, 11:25–26, and 17:3
  52. ^ This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England, works contained in the Book of Concord.
  53. ^ Fuller, The Foundations of New Testament Christology, p. 11.
  54. ^ A Jesus Seminar conclusion held that "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on visionary experiences of Peter, Paul, and Mary."
  55. ^ Funk. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?.
  56. ^ Lorenzen. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today, p. 13.
  57. ^ 1Cor 15:14
  58. ^ Ball/Johnsson (ed.). The Essential Jesus.
  59. ^ a b Eisenbaum, Pamela (Winter 2004). "A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans" (PDF). Journal of Biblical Literature. 123 (4): 671–702. doi:10.2307/3268465. JSTOR 3268465. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
  60. ^ Gal. 3:29
  61. ^ Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? (Oxford, 1997), p. 121.
  62. ^ Rom. 8:9,11,16
  63. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 846.
  64. ^ Westminster Confession, Chapter X Archived 28 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine;
    Spurgeon, A Defense of Calvinism Archived 10 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  65. ^ "Grace and Justification". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 15 August 2010.
  66. ^ Definition of the Fourth Lateran Council quoted in Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 253..
  67. ^ Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the Catholic Encyclopedia (article "Monotheism"); William F. Albright, From the Stone Age to Christianity; H. Richard Niebuhr; About.com, Monotheistic Religion resources; Kirsch, God Against the Gods; Woodhead, An Introduction to Christianity; The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia Monotheism; The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, monotheism; New Dictionary of Theology, Paul, pp. 496–499; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". pp. 111ff.
  68. ^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 87–90.
  69. ^ Alexander. New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. pp. 514ff.
  70. ^ McGrath. Historical Theology. p. 61.
  71. ^ Metzger/Coogan. Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 782.
  72. ^ Kelly. The Athanasian Creed.
  73. ^ Oxford, "Encyclopedia of Christianity, pg1207
  74. ^ Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art, Mercer University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-86554-850-1, pp. 32–35.
  75. ^ Examples of ante-Nicene statements:

    Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.

    — St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation

    We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts

    — St. Ignatius of Antioch in Letter to the Ephesians, ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation

    The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...

    — St. Irenaeus in Against Heresies, ch.X, v.I, Donaldson, Sir James (1950), Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., ISBN 978-0-8028-8087-1

    For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water

    — Justin Martyr in First Apology, ch. LXI, Donaldson, Sir James (1950), Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-8028-8087-1
  76. ^ Olson, Roger E. (2002). The Trinity. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-8028-4827-7.
  77. ^ Fowler. World Religions: An Introduction for Students. p. 58.
  78. ^ τριάς. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
  79. ^ Harper, Douglas. "trinity". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  80. ^ a b trinitas. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
  81. ^ trias. Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project.
  82. ^ Theophilus of Antioch. "Book II.15". Apologia ad Autolycum. Patrologiae Graecae Cursus Completus (in Greek and Latin). 6. Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.
  83. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. p. 50.
  84. ^ Tertullian, "21", De Pudicitia (in Latin), Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus..
  85. ^ McManners, Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, p. 53.
  86. ^ Moltman, Jurgen. The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God. Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2825-X
  87. ^ Harnack, History of Dogma.
  88. ^ Pocket Dictionary of Church History Nathan P. Feldmeth p. 135 "Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity"
  89. ^ a b Gill, N.S. "Which Nation First Adopted Christianity?". About.com. Retrieved 8 October 2011. Armenia is considered the first nation to have adopted Christianity as the state religion in a traditional date of c. A.D. 301.
  90. ^ Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis questions 69 through 99
  91. ^ Calvin, John. "Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25". reformed.org. Retrieved 1 January 2008.
  92. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "Particular Judgment".
  93. ^ Ott, Grundriß der Dogmatik, p. 566.
  94. ^ David Moser, What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead.
  95. ^ Ken Collins, What Happens to Me When I Die? Archived 28 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  96. ^ "Audience of 4 August 1999". Vatican.va. 4 August 1999. Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  97. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia, "The Communion of Saints".
  98. ^ "The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing." What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watchtower, 15 July 2002.
  99. ^ a b White 2010, pp. 71–82
  100. ^ Russell, Thomas Arthur (2010). Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions. Universal-Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-59942-877-2.
  101. ^ a b Justin Martyr, First Apology §LXVII
  102. ^ White 2010, p. 36
  103. ^ Witvliet, John D. (2007). The Biblical Psalms in Christian Worship: A Brief Introduction and Guide to Resources. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8028-0767-0. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  104. ^ Wallwork, Norman (2019). "The Purpose of a Hymn Book" (PDF). Joint Liturgical Group of Great Britain. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  105. ^ For example, The Calendar, Church of England, retrieved 25 June 2020
  106. ^ Ignazio Silone, Bread and Wine (1937).
  107. ^ Benz, Ernst (2008). The Eastern Orthodox Church: Its Thought and Life. Transaction Publishers. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-202-36575-6.
  108. ^ Understanding Closed Communion, stating "Therefore, our Congregation and our Denomination practices what is called ‘close or closed Communion’, meaning that before you take Communion at our Churches, we ask you to take a Communion Class first to properly learn what Communion is all about.", by Archive.org
  109. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 1415.
  110. ^ "An open table: How United Methodists understand communion – The United Methodist Church". United Methodist Church. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  111. ^ Canon B28 of the Church of England
  112. ^ a b c Cross/Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. pp. 1435ff.
  113. ^ Robert Paul Lightner, Handbook of Evangelical Theology, Kregel Academic, USA, 1995, p. 234
  114. ^ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.
  115. ^ Senn, Frank C. (2012). Introduction to Christian Liturgy. Fortress Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-1-4514-2433-1. For example, days of Mary, Joseph, and John the Baptist (e.g., August 15, March 19, June 24, respectively) are ranked as solemnities in the Roman Catholic calendar; in the Anglican and Lutheran calendars they are holy days or lesser festivals respectively.
  116. ^ a b Fortescue, Adrian (1912). "Christian Calendar". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
  117. ^ Hickman. Handbook of the Christian Year.
  118. ^ "ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library". Ccel.org. 1 June 2005. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  119. ^ Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer (Octavius of Minucius Felix, chapter XXIX).
  120. ^ "At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, De Corona, chapter 3)
  121. ^ a b Dilasser. The Symbols of the Church.
  122. ^ a b Catholic Encyclopedia, "Symbolism of the Fish".
  123. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 1213. Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission.
  124. ^ "Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" (Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal)
  125. ^ "Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" (By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF) Archived 13 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  126. ^ "As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" (William H. Brackney, Doing Baptism Baptist Style – Believer's Baptism Archived 7 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine)
  127. ^ "After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" (Orthodox Church in America: Baptism). Archived 12 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  128. ^ "In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "Baptism Archived 30 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine".
  129. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 403.
  130. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraphs 1231, 1233, 1250, 1252.
  131. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 1240.
  132. ^ Randall Herbert Balmer, Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 54
  133. ^ Donald W. Dayton, The Variety of American Evangelicalism, Univ. of Tennessee Press, USA, 2001, p. 155, 159
  134. ^ David Blankenhorn, The Faith Factor in Fatherhood: Renewing the Sacred Vocation of Fathering, Lexington Books, USA, 1999, p. 103
  135. ^ "Matthew 6:9–13 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV)". Retrieved 10 March 2020.
  136. ^ Jordan, Anne (2000). Christianity. Nelson Thornes. ISBN 978-0-7487-5320-8. When he was standing on a hillside, Jesus explained to his followers how they were to behave as God would wish. The talk has become known as the Sermon on the Mount, and is found in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 5, 6 and 7. During the talk Jesus taught his followers how to pray and he gave them an example of suitable prayer. Christians call the prayer the Lord's Prayer, because it was taught by the Lord, Jesus Christ. It is also known as the Pattern Prayer as it provides a pattern for Christians to follow in prayer, to ensure that they pray in the way God and Jesus would want.
  137. ^ Milavec, Aaron (2003). The Didache: Faith, Hope, & Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-0537-3. Given the placement of the Lord's Prayer in the Didache, it was to be expected that the new member of the community would come to learn and to pray the Lord's Prayer at the appointed hours three times each day only after baptism (8:2f.).
  138. ^ Beckwith, Roger T. (2005). Calendar, Chronology And Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism And Early Christianity. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-14603-7. So three minor hours of prayer were developed, at the third, sixth and ninth hours, which, as Dugmore points out, were ordinary divisions of the day for worldly affairs, and the Lord's Prayer was transferred to those hours.
  139. ^ Henry Chadwick (1993). The Early Church. Penguin. ISBN 978-1-101-16042-8. Hippolytus in the Apostolic Tradition directed that Christians should pray seven times a day - on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.
  140. ^ Lössl, Josef (17 February 2010). The Early Church: History and Memory. A&C Black. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-567-16561-9. Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin oriens).
  141. ^ Kurian, Jake. ""Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers". Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
  142. ^ Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney (1906). A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Methuen. p. 399. Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one of more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.
  143. ^ Hippolytus. "Apostolic Tradition" (PDF). St. John's Episcopal Church. pp. 8, 16, 17. Retrieved 5 September 2020.
  144. ^ Alexander, T.D.; Rosner, B.S, eds. (2001). "Prayer". New Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
  145. ^ Ferguson, S.B. & Packer, J. (1988). "Saints". New Dictionary of Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
  146. ^ Madeleine Gray, The Protestant Reformation, (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), p. 140.
  147. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 2559.
  148. ^ "The Book of Common Prayer". Church of England. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
  149. ^ Virkler, Henry A. (2007). Ayayo, Karelynne Gerber (ed.). Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8010-3138-0.
  150. ^ "Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture". Catechism of the Catholic Church. Archived from the original on 9 September 2010.(§105–108)
  151. ^ Second Helvetic Confession, Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God
  152. ^ Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, online text
  153. ^ Metzger/Coogan, Oxford Companion to the Bible. p. 39.
  154. ^ a b Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: the story behind who changed the Bible and why. San Francisco: Harper ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4 pp. 183, 209
  155. ^ "1 Timothy 2:11–12 NIV – A woman should learn in quietness and". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  156. ^ "1 Corinthians 14:34–35 NIV – Women should remain silent in the". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  157. ^ "1 corinthians 11:2–16 NIV – On Covering the Head in Worship – I". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  158. ^ Wright, N.T. (1992). The New Testament and the People of God. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. pp. 435–443. ISBN 978-0-8006-2681-5.
  159. ^ "The Gospel of Thomas Collection – Translations and Resources". Gnosis.org. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  160. ^ "Luke 17:20–21 NIV – The Coming of the Kingdom of God". Bible Gateway. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  161. ^ "Reflections on religions". Mmnet.com.au. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  162. ^ John Bowker, 2011, The Message and the Book, UK, Atlantic Books, pp. 13-14
  163. ^ Kelly. Early Christian Doctrines. pp. 69–78.
  164. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture § 115–118. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  165. ^ Thomas Aquinas, "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses" Archived 6 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  166. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116 Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  167. ^ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19) Archived 31 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
  168. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113. Archived 25 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  169. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church, "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85. Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  170. ^ a b "Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?". Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod. 2014. Archived from the original on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014. The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.
  171. ^ Keith A. Mathison (2001). "Introduction". The Shape of Sola Scriptura. Canon Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-885767-74-5.
  172. ^ Humphrey, Edith M. (15 April 2013). Scripture and Tradition. Baker Books. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-4412-4048-4. historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.
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  406. ^ This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word Reformed. It includes Presbyterians and Congregationalists.
  407. ^ World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."
  408. ^ a b Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, The Reformation: A History, p. xxiv.)
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