カトリック教会
 カトリック教会 | |
|---|---|
| エクレシアカトリック | |
 サンピエトロ大聖堂、世界最大のカトリック教会。 | |
| 分類 | カトリック |
| 聖書 | 聖書 |
| 神学 | カトリック神学 |
| 政体 | 聖公会[1] |
| 法王 | フランシス |
| 政府 | 聖座 |
| 管理 | ローマ教皇庁 |
| 特定の教会 suiiuris | ラテン教会、および23の東方典礼カトリック教会 |
| 教区 | |
| 小教区 | 221,700 |
| 領域 | 世界的に |
| 言語 | 教会ラテン語と母国語 |
| 典礼 | 西部と東部 |
| 本部 | イタリア、ローマ（de jure） バチカン市国（de facto） |
| 創設者 | イエス、神聖な伝統によると |
| 元 | 1世紀の 聖地、ローマ帝国[2] [3] |
| メンバー | 13億4500万（2019）[4] |
| 聖職者 | |
| 病院 | 5,500 [5] |
| 小学校 | 95,200 [6] |
| 中学校 | 43,800 |
| 公式サイト | www.vatican.va |
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| 一部、一連の |
| カトリック教会 |
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| 概要 |
 カトリック教会ポータル |
| 上のシリーズの一部 |
| キリスト教 |
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 キリスト教ポータル |
カトリック教会としても知られ、ローマカトリック教会は、ある最大のキリスト教会で最大の宗教 宗派約13億で、洗礼を受けたカトリック教徒世界中の2019のよう[update]。[4] [7]世界で最も古く、最大の継続的に機能する国際機関として[8]、それは西洋文明の歴史と発展において重要な役割を果たしてきました。[9]教会は、24の特定の教会と、約3,500の教区とエパルキアで構成されています。 世界中。教皇で、ローマの司教は、ある主任牧師の教会の。[10]聖座として知られるローマの司教区は、教会の中央統治機関です。教皇庁の行政機関、ローマ教皇庁は、その主たる事務所があるバチカン市国の小さな飛び地ローマ教皇があり、そのうちの状態の頭を。
カトリックの核となる信念は、ニカイア信条にあります。カトリック教会あることを教示している1、聖なるカトリックと使徒によって設立された教会のイエス・キリストの彼には偉大な委員会、[11] [12] [注1]そのことを司教がある後継者キリストのの使徒、と教皇であること後継者にサンピエトロ誰時に、優位性は、イエス・キリストによって与えられました。[15]それは、使徒たちによって教えられた本来のキリスト教の信仰を実践し、信仰を間違いなく維持していると主張しています。聖書と神聖な伝統を忠実を通じて解釈として教導職教会の。[16]ラテン教会、二十から三東方典礼カトリック教会、とのような機関托鉢修道会、囲まれた修道会と第三の受注は反映多様の神学、教会で、精神的な強調を。[17] [18]
その7つの秘跡のうち、聖体はミサで儀式的に祝われる主要な秘跡です。[19]教会は、司祭による奉献を通して、犠牲のパンとワインがキリストの体と血になると教えています。聖母マリアがされ崇敬ようパーペチュアル処女、神の母、そして天の女王。彼女は教義と献身で光栄です。[20] カトリック社会教説は、慈悲の肉体的および精神的な働きを通して、病人、貧しい人、そして苦しんでいる人への自発的な支援を強調しています。カトリック教会は、世界中で何千ものカトリック学校、病院、孤児院を運営しており、教育と医療を提供する世界最大の非政府機関です。[21]他の社会福祉の中には、多くの慈善団体や人道団体があります。
カトリック教会は、西洋の哲学、文化、芸術、音楽、科学に影響を与えてきました。カトリック教徒は、ミッション、ディアスポラ、そして回心を通して世界中に住んでいます。 20世紀以来、過半数に常駐南半球に起因して、世俗ヨーロッパでは、と増加した迫害で中東。カトリック教会は、1054年の東西教会の分裂まで、東方正教会と交わりを共有し、特に教皇の権威。西暦431年のエフェソス公会議の前に、東方諸教会もこの交わりを共有しました。西方諸教会は、西暦451年のカルケドン公会議の前にそうしました。すべては主に キリスト論の違いをめぐって分離されました。16世紀には、改革によってプロテスタントも崩壊しました。後半20世紀からは、カトリック教会はされてきた批判のためのセクシュアリティに教え、そのordaining女性に対する教義、およびその取り扱い性的虐待事件の聖職者を含みます。
名前
カトリック（ギリシャ語から：καθολικός、ローマ字： katholikos、lit。 「ユニバーサル」）は、2世紀初頭に教会を説明するために最初に使用されました。[24]「カトリック教会」（ギリシャ語：καθολικὴἐκκλησία、ローマ字： 彼はカトリックのエククレシア）というフレーズの最初の既知の使用は、アンティオキアの聖イグナチオからスミルナエ人への西暦110年頃に書かれた手紙で起こった。[注2]で問答講義（C。 350）のエルサレムの聖シリル、「カトリック教会」という名前は、自分たちを「教会」と呼んでいる他のグループと区別するために使用されました。[25] [26]「カトリック」という概念は、さらに、勅令で強調されたデ善意カトリックがで380を発行したテオドシウスI、両方の上に支配する最後の皇帝、東部と西部の半分ローマ帝国を確立するとき、の状態教会ローマ帝国。[27]
1054年の東西教会の分裂以来、東方教会はその独特の形容詞として「正教会」を採用し（ただし、正式名称は引き続き「正教会」[28]）、西方教会はホーリーシーも同様に「カトリック」を取り、聖体拝領をやめた人々が「プロテスタント」として知られるようになった16世紀のプロテスタント改革後もその説明を維持しています。[29] [30]
「ローマの教会は」教皇の記述するために使用されてきたが、ローマの教区をので、西ローマ帝国の秋とに中世初期（第六-10世紀）、「ローマ・カトリック教会は」教会全体に適用されています16世紀後半のプロテスタント改革以来の英語で。[31]「ローマ・カトリック」は、聖座によって作成された文書[注3]、特に特定の全国司教会議に適用された文書、および地方の教区にも時折登場しました。【注4】
教会全体の「カトリック教会」という名前は、カトリック教会のカテキズム（1990年）と教会法の規範（1983年）で使用されています。名前「カトリック教会」もの文書で使用されている第二バチカン公会議（1962年から1965年）、[32]第1バチカン公会議（1869年から1870年）、[33]トレントの評議会（1545年から1563年）、[ 34]および他の多くの公式文書。[35] [36]
歴史
キリスト教は、ローマ帝国のユダヤ州で1世紀に住んで説教したイエスキリストの教えに基づいています。カトリック神学は、現代のカトリック教会は、イエスによって設立されたこの初期のキリスト教共同体の継続であると教えています。[11]異教の国教との対立による迫害にもかかわらず、キリスト教は初期のローマ帝国全体に広がった。コンスタンティヌス皇帝は313年にキリスト教の慣習を合法化し、380年に国教になりました。5世紀と6世紀にゲルマン人がローマ領土に侵入し、その多くは以前にアリウス派のキリスト教を採用していました。、最終的にはカトリックを採用して、教皇庁と修道院と同盟を結びました。
7日と8世紀では、拡大するイスラム教徒の征服をの出現以下のイスラム教は、その地域と北ヨーロッパ間の政治的な接続を切断地中海のアラブの支配につながった、とローマとの間で文化的な接続を弱体化ビザンチン帝国。教会の権威、特にローマの司教の権威を含む紛争は、最終的に11世紀に東西教会の分裂で頂点に達し、教会をカトリック教会と正教会に分割しました。エフェソス公会議（431）とカルケドン公会議の後に教会内での初期の分裂が起こった（451）。しかし、いくつかの東方典礼カトリック教会はローマとの交わりを維持し、他のいくつかの教会は15世紀以降に聖体拝領を確立し、いわゆる東方典礼カトリック教会を形成しました。
ヨーロッパ中の初期の修道院は、ギリシャとローマの古典文明を保護するのに役立ちました。教会はやがて西洋文明の支配的な影響力となり、現代に至りました。多くのルネッサンスの人物は教会によって後援されました。しかし、16世紀には、プロテスタント改革の人物による教会、特にその宗教的権威に対する挑戦が見られ始め、17世紀には啓蒙主義の世俗的な知識人による挑戦が見られ始めました。同時に、スペイン語とポルトガル語の探検家と宣教師は、アフリカ、アジア、そして新世界に教会の影響力を広めました。
1870年に、第1バチカン公会議はの教義宣言教皇不可謬性をし、イタリア王国は、ローマの街を併合し、最後の部分教皇領は、新しい国家に組み込まれます。 20世紀には、メキシコやスペインを含む世界中の反教権主義政府が、何千人もの聖職者や一般市民を迫害または処刑しました。第二次世界大戦では、教会はナチズムを非難し、数十万人のユダヤ人をホロコーストから保護しました。しかし、その努力は不十分であると批判されてきました。戦後、ソビエト連邦と新たに連携した共産主義国では、信教の自由が厳しく制限された。、そのうちのいくつかはカトリックの人口が多かった。
1960年代、第2バチカン公会議は、教会の典礼と慣習の改革をもたらしました。これは、擁護者によって「窓を開ける」と表現されましたが、伝統主義カトリック教徒によって批判されました。男性の聖職者を制限するなど、セクシュアリティやジェンダーに関する論争の教義上の位置、および道徳的なのexhortations内となしの両方から増加批判に直面して、教会は支持しているか、または様々な時間で再確認中絶、避妊、性行為の結婚の外で、再婚を以下の離婚をせずに破棄し、反対同性結婚。
使徒継承とパパシー
新約聖書は、特に福音書、イエスの活動と教育、十二使徒と彼の任命記録グレート委員会の彼の仕事を続けるためにそれらを指示し、使徒のを。[37] [38]使徒言行録は、キリスト教教会の設立とローマ帝国へのそのメッセージの広がりについて述べています。[39] カトリック教会は、その公務がペンテコステで始まり、キリストが復活したと信じられている日から50日後に起こったと教えている。[40]ペンテコステでは、使徒たちは聖霊を受け、教会を導くという使命に備えると信じられています。[41] [42]カトリック教会は、ことを教示している司教の大学が率いる、ローマの司教がある後継使徒へ。[43]
マタイの福音書にあるペテロの告白の説明の中で、キリストはペテロをキリストの教会が建てられる「岩」として指定しています。[44] [45]カトリック教会は、教皇であるローマの司教が聖ペテロの後継者であると考えている。[46]一部の学者は、ピーターがローマの最初の司教であったと述べている。[47] [注5]教皇庁の制度は、ペテロがローマの司教であったという考えや、彼がローマにいたことさえも依存していないと言う人もいます。[48]多くの学者は、複数の長老/司教の教会構造は、単一の司教と複数の長老の構造が採用された2世紀半ばまでローマで存続し[49]、後の作家は「ローマの司教」という用語を遡及的に適用したと考えています。 「初期の聖職者の最も著名なメンバーとピーター自身にも。[49]これに基づき、オスカー・クルマン、[50] ヘンリー・チャドウィック、[51]とバート・D・エアーマン[52]ピーターと現代のローマ教皇の間の正式なリンクがあったかどうかを質問。レイモンドE.ブラウンまた、ローマの地元の司教の観点からペテロについて話すのは時代錯誤であるが、その時代のキリスト教徒はペテロを「教皇の役割の発展に本質的な方法で貢献する役割を持っている」と見なしていただろうとも述べています次の教会」。これらの役割は、「ローマの司教、ペテロが亡くなり、パウロがキリストの真理を目撃した都市の司教を、教会の普遍的な世話をするペテロの後継者として見ることに多大な貢献をした」とブラウンは言います。[49]
古代とローマ帝国
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| 上のシリーズの一部 |
| エキュメニカル協議会 のカトリック教会 |
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| 古代（C。 50 - 451） |
| 中世初期（553–870） |
| 中世後期（1122〜1517） |
| 現代性（1545–1965） |
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カトリックポータル |
ローマ帝国の状況は、新しいアイデアの普及を促進しました。帝国の道路と水路のネットワークは旅行を容易にし、パックスロマーナは旅行を安全にしました。帝国はギリシャのルーツを持つ共通の文化の普及を促進し、それによりアイデアをより簡単に表現し理解することができました。[53]
しかし、ローマ帝国のほとんどの宗教とは異なり、キリスト教はその信奉者に他のすべての神々を放棄することを要求しました。これはユダヤ教から採用された慣習です（偶像崇拝を参照）。キリスト教徒が異教の祭典に参加することを拒否したことは、彼らが公の生活の多くに参加できなかったことを意味し、政府当局を含む非キリスト教徒は、キリスト教徒が神々を怒らせ、それによって帝国の平和と繁栄を脅かしていることを恐れました。結果として迫害は、キリスト教が4世紀に合法化されるまで、キリスト教の自己理解の決定的な特徴でした。[54]
313年、コンスタンティヌス1世のミラノ勅令はキリスト教を合法化し、330年にコンスタンティヌスは、帝国の首都をトルコの近代イスタンブールにあるコンスタンティノープルに移しました。 380でテサロニケの勅令がなされニカイアキリスト教ローマ帝国の状態教会の減少領土内という位置ビザンチン帝国自体がに終わった帝国まで持続しますコンスタンティノープルの陥落他の場所で教会が独立していたのに対し、1453年に東西教会の分裂で特に明らかになったように、帝国。期間中7つの公会議、5つの主要な公会議が出現し、6世紀半ばにユスティニアヌス1世がローマ、コンスタンティノープル、アンティオキア、エルサレム、アレクサンドリアの五角形として正式に編曲しました。[55] [56] 451においてカルケドン公会議、係争有効キヤノンに、[57]上昇コンスタンの参照を位置「ローマの司教に隆起及び電力の第二」に。[58] cから。 350からc。 500、ローマの司教、または教皇は、支援への彼らの一貫した介入を通して着実に権威を増しました彼らへの訴えを奨励した神学的論争の正統派指導者。[59]皇帝ユスティニアヌス彼の制御下にある地域で決定的の形確立、皇帝教皇主義を、[60]彼はまた、口述の権利と彼の法律によって礼拝と規律のminutest詳細を規制する義務、としていた」とは、教会で行われるべき神学的意見」[61]は、ローマと西部の他の地域に対する帝国の権力を再確立し、ビザンチン教皇主義と呼ばれる期間を開始した。ローマ、または教皇の司教、コンスタンまたは奉献のためにラヴェンナの代理人からの皇帝から必要な承認、及び最も彼のギリシャ語圏の対象から皇帝によって選択された時（537から752）、[62]得られました芸術と典礼における西洋と東洋のキリスト教の伝統の「溶ける鍋」で。[63]
次の世紀にローマ帝国に侵入したゲルマン部族のほとんどは、カトリック教会が異端であると宣言したアリウス派の形でキリスト教を採用していました。[64]ゲルマンの支配者とカトリックの主題との間に生じた宗教的不和[65]は、497年にフランク人の支配者であるクローヴィス1世が正統派のカトリックに改宗し、教皇庁と修道院と同盟を結んだときに回避された。[66]スペインの西ゴート族は、589で彼のリードに続く[67] 7世紀の過程で、イタリアのロンゴバルド。[68]
西方キリスト教は、特にその修道院を通じて、その芸術（装飾写本を参照）と識字能力を備えた古典文明を保存する上での主要な要因でした。[69]彼を通じてルール、ヌルシアのベネディクトゥス（C。480から543）、の創始者の一西洋修道院は、初期のカトリック教会の修道士の精神的遺産の処分を通じて、欧州の文化に多大な影響力を発揮して、と古代文化の保存と伝達を通じて、ベネディクトの伝統を広めました。この期間中、修道士のアイルランドは学習の中心地となり、コロンバヌスなどの初期のアイルランド人宣教師になりましたそしてコロンバはキリスト教を広げて、ヨーロッパ大陸全体の修道院を設立しました。[1]
中世とルネッサンス
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| 上のシリーズの一部 |
| カトリック哲学 |
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| 倫理 |
| 学校 |
| 哲学者 |
 哲学ポータル |
カトリック教会は、古代末期から現代の夜明けまで、西洋文明に支配的な影響を及ぼしました。[9]それは、芸術、建築、音楽におけるロマネスク、ゴシック、ルネッサンス、マニエリスム、バロック様式の主要なスポンサーでした。[70]ラファエロ、ミケランジェロ、レオナルド・ダ・ヴィンチ、ボッティチェッリ、フラ・アンジェリコ、ティントレット、ティツィアーノ、ベルニーニ、カラヴァッジョなどのルネッサンスの人物は、教会が後援する数多くの視覚芸術家の例です。[71]の歴史家ポールレグトコスタンフォード大学は、カトリック教会は「私たちが西洋文明と呼ぶものを構成する価値観、アイデア、科学、法律、制度の発展の中心にある」と述べました。[72]
7世紀半ばの大規模なイスラムの侵略は、地中海沿岸全体でキリスト教とイスラム教の間の長い闘争を開始しました。ビザンチン帝国はすぐに東部の土地失わpatriarchatesのエルサレム、アレクサンドリアとアンティオキアをとのそれに減少したコンスタンティノープル、帝国の首都。地中海のイスラム支配の結果として、その海から離れて中心にあるフランク人の州は、中世の西ヨーロッパを形作った支配的な力として進化することができました。[73]トゥールーズとの戦いポアティエは西部でのイスラムの前進を止め、失敗したコンスタンティノープル包囲戦は東部でそれを止めた。 20年か30年後の751年、ビザンチン帝国は、その主権を認めたローマを含むイタリアの小さな断片を統治していたラヴェンナの街をロンバルド人に失いました。ラヴェンナの崩壊は、教皇ステファヌス2世の752年の選挙中に、もはや存在しないエクザルフによる確認が求められなかったこと、そして教皇庁がそれを保護するための市民権を他の場所で探すことを余儀なくされたことを意味しました。[74] 754年、教皇ステファヌス6世の緊急の要請により、フランク人の王ピピン3世がランゴバルド人を征服した。彼はそれから才能がありました前者の土地は教皇にエクサルコスし、こうして教皇領を開始します。ローマやビザンチン東の間、さらに紛争を掘り下げますPhotian分裂するとき、860sのPhotiusがの追加のラテン西批判フィリオクェ問題によって破門された後、句ニコラスIを。分裂は和解しましたが、未解決の問題はさらなる分裂につながるでしょう。[75]
11世紀では、の努力Sovanaののヒルデブラントは、の創出につながっ枢機卿の大学で始まる、新しい教皇を選出するために教皇アレクサンデルIIで1061年の教皇選挙。アレクサンドル2世が亡くなったとき、ヒルデブランドは教皇グレゴリウス7世として彼の後任に選出されました。グレゴリウス7世が設立を支援した枢機卿団の基本的な選挙制度は、21世紀まで機能し続けています。教皇グレゴリウス7世は、聖職者の世俗的権威からの独立に関するグレゴリウス改革をさらに開始しました。これは教会と神聖ローマ皇帝の間の叙任論争につながりました、その上に司教と教皇を任命する権限がありました。[76] [77]
1095年には、ビザンチン皇帝アレクシオス私はに訴えたウルバヌス2世への新たなイスラム教徒の侵略に対する援助のためにセルジューク・東ローマ戦争、[78]都市が起動する原因となった第1回十字軍をビザンチン帝国を支援し、返却を目的とした聖地をキリスト教のコントロールに。[79]では11世紀、主にギリシャの教会とカトリック教会の間に緊張関係は、それらを分離東西教会の分裂部分的に原因をめぐる紛争に、教皇の権威。第4回十字軍そして、反逆の十字軍によるコンスタンティノープルの解任は、最終的な違反を証明しました。[80]この時代、フランスの偉大なゴシック様式の大聖堂は、キリスト教信仰に対する人気のある誇りの表れでした。
13世紀初頭、アッシジのフランチェスコとドミニコデグスマンによって托鉢修道会が設立されました。STUDIAのconventualiaとSTUDIA generalia托鉢修道会の教会後援の転換に大きな役割を果たした大聖堂の学校などのような、そして宮殿の学校シャルルマーニュのアーヘンヨーロッパの著名な大学に、。[81]ドミニコ会の司祭トマス・アクィナスなどのスコラ神学者や哲学者は、これらの研究室で研究し、教えた。アクィナスの神学大全 プラトンやアリストテレスなどの古代ギリシャの哲学者の遺産をキリスト教の啓示の内容と統合することにおける知的マイルストーンでした。[82]
政教分離の意識の高まりは、14世紀をマークしました。ローマの不安定さから逃れるために、1309年にクレメンス5世は、アヴィニョン捕囚として知られる時期に、南フランスの要塞都市アヴィニョンに住む7人の教皇の最初の人物となりました[83]。アヴィニョン捕囚は、教皇がローマに戻った1376年に終了しましたが[84]、1378年には、ローマ、アヴィニョン、および（1409年以降）ピサの教皇の主張者とともに、38年にわたる西洋の教会大分裂が続きました。[84]この問題は、コンスタンツ公会議で1415年から17年にかけて大部分が解決された。, with the claimants in Rome and Pisa agreeing to resign and the third claimant excommunicated by the cardinals, who held a new election naming Martin V pope.[85]
In 1438, the Council of Florence convened, which featured a strong dialogue focussed on understanding the theological differences between the East and West, with the hope of reuniting the Catholic and Orthodox churches.[86] Several eastern churches reunited, forming the majority of the Eastern Catholic Churches.[87]
Age of Discovery
ディスカバリーの時代15世紀に始まり、西ヨーロッパの政治的、文化的影響力の世界的な拡大を見ました。西部植民地主義においてスペインとポルトガルの強力なカトリック諸国が果たした顕著な役割のために、カトリックは探検家、征服者、宣教師によって、また社会政治的メカニズムによる社会の変革によって、アメリカ大陸、アジア、オセアニアに広まりました。植民地支配の。教皇アレクサンデル6世は、新しく発見された土地のほとんどに対して植民地の権利をスペインとポルトガルに与えており[88]、その後のパトロナト制度により、バチカンではなく州当局が新しい植民地のすべての事務職を管理できるようになりました。[89] 1521年、ポルトガルの探検家フェルディナンドマゼランは、フィリピンで最初のカトリック改宗者を作りました。[90]他の場所では、スペインのイエズス会フランシスコ・ザビエルの下のポルトガル人宣教師がインド、中国、そして日本で福音を宣べ伝えた。[91] 16世紀に始まった南北アメリカのフランス植民地化は、カトリックのフランス語圏の人口を確立し、非カトリック教徒がケベックに定住することを禁じた。[92]
プロテスタント改革と対抗宗教改革
1415年には、ヤン・フスは異端のために火あぶりに、彼の改革努力を奨励したマルティン・ルター、アウグ現代ドイツの僧、送信された彼の95ヶ条の論題を1517にいくつかの司教には、[93]彼の論文は、キーに抗議しましたカトリックのポイント教義などの販売おぼれる、そして一緒にライプチヒディベートこれは彼につながっ破門1521で[93] [94]では、スイス、フルドリッヒ・ツヴィングリ、ジョンカルビンや他のプロテスタントの改革さらにカトリックの教えを批判した。これらの課題は改革へと発展し、それがプロテスタント 宗派の大多数[95]と、カトリック教会内の隠れプロテスタント主義を生み出しました。[96]一方、ヘンリー8世は、アラゴンのキャサリンとの結婚に関して無効の宣言を教皇に請願した。これが否定されたとき、彼は彼をイングランド国教会の長にするために国王至上法を通過させ、英国宗教改革と最終的な英国国教会の発展に拍車をかけました。[97]
宗教改革は、プロテスタントのシュマルカルデン同盟とカトリック皇帝カール5世およびその同盟国との間の衝突に貢献しました。最初の9年間の戦争は、1555年にアウクスブルクの和平で終わりましたが、緊張が続くと、1618年に勃発した三十年戦争というはるかに深刻な紛争が発生しました。[98]フランスでは、フランス戦争と呼ばれる一連の紛争が発生しました。宗教は1562年から1598年にかけて、Huguenots（フランスのカルビニスト）と一連の教皇によって支援され資金提供されたフランスのカトリック連盟の軍隊との間で戦いました。[99]これは下で終わったPope Clement VIII, who hesitantly accepted King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes granting civil and religious toleration to French Protestants.[98][99]
トレントの評議会（1545-1563）が原動力になった対抗宗教改革プロテスタントの動きに応じて。教義上、それは、聖変化や愛と希望の必要性、そして救いを達成するための信仰などの中心的なカトリックの教えを再確認しました。[100]その後の数世紀で、カトリックは、一部は宣教師と帝国主義を通じて世界中に広まったが、啓蒙時代とその後の宗教的懐疑論の高まりにより、ヨーロッパの人口に対する支配は低下した。[101]
啓蒙と近世
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| 上のシリーズの一部 |
| 迫害 のカトリック教会 |
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カトリックポータル |
From the 17th century onward, the Enlightenment questioned the power and influence of the Catholic Church over Western society.[102] In the 18th century, writers such as Voltaire and the Encyclopédistes wrote biting critiques of both religion and the Catholic Church. One target of their criticism was the 1685 revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV of France, which ended a century-long policy of religious toleration of Protestant Huguenots. As the papacy resisted pushes for Gallicanism, the French Revolution of 1789 shifted power to the state, caused the destruction of churches, the establishment of a 理由のカルト、[103]との殉教修道女の間の恐怖政治。[104] 1798年、ナポレオン・ボナパルトのルイ＝アレクサンドル・ベルティエ将軍がイタリア半島に侵入し、捕われの身で亡くなった教皇ピウス6世を投獄した。ナポレオンは後に1801年の協約を通じてフランスにカトリック教会を再建しました。[105]ナポレオン戦争の終結は、カトリックの復活と教皇領の復活をもたらした。[106]
1854年、教皇ピウス9世は、1851年から1853年まで相談した圧倒的多数のカトリック司教の支持を得て、カトリック教会の教義として無原罪の御宿りを宣言しました。[107] 1870年、第1バチカン公会議は、明確に定義された宣言で行使された場合、教皇不可謬説を確認し[108] [109]、公会議主義のライバルの立場に打撃を与えた。これと他の問題をめぐる論争と呼ばれる離脱の動きが生じた旧カトリック教会、[110]
1860年代のイタリア統一は、1870年からのローマ自体を含む教皇領をイタリア王国に組み入れ、それによって教皇領の一時的な権力を終わらせました。それに応じて、教皇ピウス9世は、ヴィットーリオエマヌエル2世を破門し、土地の支払いを拒否し、彼に特別な特権を与えたイタリアの教皇保障法を拒否しました。イタリア当局への目に見える服従に身を置くことを避けるために、彼は「バチカンの囚人」のままでした。[111]ローマ問題として話されたこのスタンドオフは、1929年のラテラノ条約によって解決されました。これにより、聖座は、支払いの見返りとして旧教皇領に対するイタリアの主権を認め、バチカン市国に対する教皇領を新しい主権国家および独立国家として認めた。[112]
カトリックの宣教師は、19世紀後半にヨーロッパの帝国勢力がアフリカを征服することを一般的に支持し、促進しようとしました。宗教史家のエイドリアン・ヘイスティングスによれば、植民地の不正に反対することをいとわなかったプロテスタントの宣教師とは対照的に、カトリックの宣教師は一般にアフリカの権利を擁護したり、アフリカ人に自分たちをヨーロッパ人と同等であると見なすように勧めたりしませんでした。[113]
20世紀
第一次世界大戦中、カトリック教会から多くの平和への訴えがありました。1917年8月1日の教皇ベネディクトゥス15世の「Dèsledébut」イニシアチブは、戦争当事者の拒絶のために失敗しました。[114]
20世紀には多くの反聖職者政府が出現しました。メキシコの教会と州を分離する1926年の政教分離法はクリステロ戦争を引き起こし[115]、3,000人以上の司祭が追放または暗殺され[116]、教会は冒涜され、奉仕は嘲笑され、修道女はレイプされ、捕らえられた司祭は射殺された。[115] 1917年の10月革命後、ソビエト連邦における教会とカトリック教徒への迫害は1930年代まで続き、聖職者、僧侶、平信徒の処刑と追放、宗教的道具の没収、教会の閉鎖が行われた。[117] [118] 1936〜39年のスペイン内戦、人民戦線政府に対してフランコの 国民党と同盟を結んだカトリックの階層[119]は、教会に対する共和党の暴力を正当化するものとして引用している。[120] [121]教皇ピオ十一世は、これら3つの国を「ひどい三角形」と呼んだ。[122] [123]
1933年の違反後ライヒスコンコルダート教会との間にナチスドイツ、ピウス11世は、 1937年勅発行したミット・ブレネンダー・ゾルゲ公に教会のナチス迫害との彼らのイデオロギー非難、neopaganismおよび人種的優越性を。[127] [128] [129]教会は、第二次世界大戦とその後の戦時中のナチスの侵略を開始した1939年のポーランド侵攻を非難した。[130]ナチスが占領した国々で数千人のカトリックの司祭、修道女、兄弟が投獄されるか、強制収容所に連れて行かれ、聖人マキシミリアノコルベやエディススタインを含む拷問と殺害が行われました。[131] [132]対照的に、カトリックの聖職者は、ナチスと協力し、彼らの反ユダヤ主義政策を模倣し、彼らがスロバキアでホロコーストを実行するのを助けたファシストスロバキア国家の政府で主導的な役割を果たした。スロバキア国家の大統領でありカトリックの司祭であるヨゼフ・ティソは、彼の政府によるスロバキアのユダヤ人の絶滅収容所への強制送還を支持した。[133]
カトリック教徒とカトリック実体は、受動的抵抗と、国家社会主義を打ち負かすための積極的な努力にも参加しました。マイルスクリスティと呼ばれることの多い司祭ハインリヒマイヤー周辺のカトリック抵抗グループは、V-1飛行爆弾、V-2ロケット、タイガータンク、メッサーシュミットMe 163コメット、その他の航空機の計画と生産施設を彼らがドイツの生産施設を標的にすることができる同盟国。情報の多くはに重要だったハイドラ作戦と運用クロスボウ、両方クリティカルな業務運用覇王。彼と彼のグループは、アウシュビッツでのユダヤ人の大量殺戮について、早い段階でアメリカ戦略サービス局に知らせた。マイヤーは、「兵器工場に投下されるすべての爆弾は戦争を短縮し、民間人を救う」という原則に基づいてナチスとの戦争を支持した。[134]
1943年頃、アドルフヒトラーは、ドイツでの教皇の誘拐と彼の抑留を計画しました。彼はSSGeneral Wolffに、アクションの準備をするための対応する命令を出しました。[135] [136]一方ピウス12をする助けと信じてきたユダヤ人の数十万人を救う中にホロコースト、[137] [138]教会はまたの奨励世紀たと非難されてきたユダヤをその教えによって、[139]そしてナチスの残虐行為を止めるのに十分なことをしていません。[140]多くのナチス犯罪者は、第二次世界大戦後、バチカンからの強力な支持者がいたために海外に逃亡した。[141] [142] [143]ピオ十二世の裁き。教皇使節、国務長官、教皇の枢機卿としての彼の在職期間のために教会のアーカイブが部分的に閉鎖されているか、まだ処理されていないため、情報筋によってさらに困難になっています。 [144]
でバラバラユーゴスラビア、教会はナチス・インストールクロアチアカトリックファシスト好まウスタシャのの溶解以下の地域でのカトリックの影響力を回復するために、潜在的にその反共イデオロギーにしてのために政権をオーストリア=ハンガリー帝国。[145]しかしながら、それはクロアチア独立国（NDH）を正式に認めなかった。[145]正教会のセルビア、ユダヤ人および他の非クロアチア人に対する政権の大量虐殺について知らされたにもかかわらず、教会はそれに対して公に発言せず、外交を通じて圧力をかけることを好んだ。[146]バチカンの立場を評価するにあたり、歴史家Jozo Tomasevichは、「カトリック教会は[Ustaše]政権とその政策を完全に支持したようだ」と書いています。[147]
中、戦後の期間、中に共産党政府中央および東ヨーロッパでは厳しく、宗教の自由を制限しました。[148]一部の司祭および宗教的人々は共産主義政権と協力したが、[149]他の多くは投獄、国外追放、または処刑された。教会は、ヨーロッパ、特にポーランド人民共和国における共産主義の崩壊において重要な役割を果たしました。[150]
1949年、中国内戦での共産主義の勝利は、すべての外国人宣教師の追放につながりました。[151]新政府はまた、愛国教会を創設し、その司教を任命した。これらの任命は、それらの多くが受け入れられる前に、最初はローマによって拒否されました。[152] [より良い情報源が必要]文化大革命中の1960年代に、中国共産党はすべての宗教施設を閉鎖した。中国の教会が最終的に再開したとき、彼らは愛国教会の管理下にとどまりました。多くのカトリック司祭は、ローマへの忠誠を放棄することを拒否したために刑務所に送られ続けました。[153]
第2バチカン公会議
第2バチカン公会議（1962〜 1965年）は、4世紀前のトレント公会議以来、カトリックの慣習に最も重要な変更を導入しました。[154]教皇ヨハネ23世によって始められたこの公会議は、カトリック教会の慣習を近代化し、ミサが土語（現地語）で言われることを可能にし、「典礼の祭典への完全に意識的で積極的な参加」を奨励した。[155]それは、教会を現在の世界（aggiornamento）とより密接に結びつけることを意図しており、それはその擁護者によって「窓の開放」として説明されました。[156]典礼の変化に加えて、それは教会のへのアプローチに変化をもたらしエキュメニズム、[157]と非キリスト教の宗教との関係改善、特にへの呼び出しユダヤ教の文書で、ノストラaetate。[158]
The council, however, generated significant controversy in implementing its reforms: proponents of the "Spirit of Vatican II" such as Swiss theologian Hans Küng said that Vatican II had "not gone far enough" to change church policies.[159] Traditionalist Catholics, such as Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, however, strongly criticised the council, arguing that its liturgical reforms led "to the destruction of the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass and the sacraments", among other issues.[160]
カトリック教会のいくつかの教えは、評議会と同時およびその後の両方でますます精査されました。それらの教えの中には、避妊の不道徳に関する教会の教えがありました。以前の方法とは道徳的に異なると一部の人が信じていたホルモン避妊薬（「ピル」を含む）の最近の導入により、ヨハネ23世は、新しい方法の道徳的および神学的問題について助言する委員会を設立しました。[161] [162] 教皇パウロ6世その後、委員会の範囲を拡大してすべての方法を自由に検討し、委員会の未発表の最終報告書は、少なくともいくつかの避妊方法を許可することを示唆していると噂されていました。パウロは提示された議論に同意せず、最終的には避妊に対する教会の絶え間ない教えを支持したと言って、Humanaevitaeを発行しました。それは禁止されているようにホルモン療法を明確に含んでいました。[注6]この文書は、多くのカトリック教徒から大部分が否定的な反応を生み出しました。[誰から？] [163]
ヨハネパウロ2世
1978年、教皇ヨハネ・パウロ二世、以前はクラクフの大司教でポーランド人民共和国は、455年ぶりの非イタリア人教皇になりました。彼の26年半の教皇は歴史上最も長いものの1つでした。[164] ソビエト連邦大統領のミハイル・ゴルバチョフは、ヨーロッパにおける共産主義の崩壊を早めたとしてポーランドの教皇を称賛した。[165]
ヨハネパウロ2世はますます世俗的な世界を伝道しようとしました。彼は若者のための「教皇との世界的な出会い」としてワールドユースデーを制定しました。現在は2〜3年ごとに開催されています。[166]彼は、129カ国を訪問し、他のどの教皇よりも多くの旅[167]と教会の教えを広める手段として、テレビやラジオを使用します。彼はまた、Laboremexercensで公正な賃金と安全な条件を持つための労働者の尊厳と自然の権利を強調した。[168]彼は中絶、安楽死に対する道徳的な勧めを含むいくつかの教会の教えを強調した、そして死刑の広範な使用に反対して、EvangeliumVitaeで。[169]
20世紀後半から、カトリック教会は、セクシュアリティに関する教義、女性を叙階することができないこと、性的虐待事件の取り扱いについて批判されてきました。
1992年、バチカンは、地球が太陽の周りを回っていることを証明したとして、359年前にガリレオを迫害したことの誤りを認めました。[170] [171]
21世紀
2005年、ヨハネパウロ2世の死後、ヨハネパウロ2世の下で信仰の教義のための会衆の長である教皇ベネディクト16世が選出されました。彼は伝統的な擁護のために知られていたキリスト教の価値観に対する世俗化を、[172]との使用の増加のためのトリエント・ミサに見られるようなローマのミサ典、彼は「臨時のフォームを」と題した1962年の、。[173]第二バチカン公会議の50周年にあたる2012年、司教会議の集会は、先進国で失踪したカトリック教徒の再福音宣教について話し合った。[174] Citing the frailties of advanced age, Benedict resigned in 2013, becoming the first pope to do so in nearly 600 years.[175] His resignation has caused controversy among a minority of Catholics[who?] who say Benedict did not fully resign the papacy.[176]
Pope Francis
教皇フランシス、カトリック教会の現在の法王は、最初から教皇として2013年に教皇ベネディクト十六世の後を継いアメリカ大陸からの最初の南半球、そしてシリアから外ヨーロッパからの最初の教皇グレゴリーIII 8日に君臨し、世紀。教皇フランシスコは、謙遜さ、神の憐れみの強調、貧しい人々と環境への配慮、そして宗教間対話への献身で知られています。メディアコメンテーターのアトランティックのレイチェル・ドナディオとヴォックスのブランドン・アンブロジーノは、前任者よりも教皇への正式なアプローチが少ないことで教皇フランシスコを称賛しています。[177] [178]
教皇フランシスコは[誰によって認識されていますか？ ]「正教会とのほぼ1、000年の疎外をさらに閉じるための」彼の努力に対して。[179]彼のインストールが出席したコンスタンティノープル総主教バーソロミューIの東方正教会、[180]以来、初めて大分裂東方正教会という1054年のコンスタンティノープル総主教は教皇のインストールに出席しました。[181] 2016年2月12日、最大の東方正教会の長であるモスクワの教皇フランシスコとキリル総主教がハバナで会った。キューバ、2つの教会間のキリスト教の統一の回復を求める共同宣言を発表。これは、1054年の大分裂以来の2つの教会間の最初のそのような高レベルの会合として報告されました。[182]
In 2014, the Third Extraordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops addressed the church's ministry towards families and marriages and to Catholics in "irregular" relationships, such as those who divorced and remarried outside of the church without a declaration of nullity.[183][184] While welcomed by some, it was criticised by some for perceived ambiguity, provoking controversies among individual representatives of differing perspectives.[185]
In 2017 during a visit in Egypt, Pope Francis reestablished mutual recognition of baptism with the Coptic Orthodox Church.[186]
In 2021, Pope Francis issued the apostolic letter Traditionis Custodes, which reversed some of permissions his predecessor had afforded to celebration of the Extraordinary Form of the Roman Rite and emphasized Pope Francis's preference for the Ordinary Form.[187]
Organisation
The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church.[188][189] There are three levels of clergy, the episcopate, composed of bishops who hold jurisdiction over a geographic area called a diocese or eparchy; the presbyterate, composed of priests ordained by bishops and who work in local dioceses or religious orders; and the diaconate, composed of deacons who assist bishops and priests in a variety of ministerial roles. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, whose jurisdiction is called the Holy See. In parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both. Additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services.
Holy See, papacy, Roman Curia, and College of Cardinals
カトリック教会の階層は、世界的なカトリック教会の指導者である教皇（ラテン語：パパ;「父」）として知られているローマの司教によって率いられています[注7]。[195]現在の教皇フランシスコは、2013年3月13日に教皇コンクラーヴェによって選出された。[196]
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The office of the pope is known as the papacy. The Catholic Church holds that Christ instituted the papacy upon giving the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter. His ecclesiastical jurisdiction is called the "Holy See" (Sancta Sedes in Latin), or the "Apostolic See" (meaning the see of the apostle Peter).[197][198] Directly serving the pope is the Roman Curia, the central governing body that administers the day-to-day business of the Catholic Church.
The pope is also Sovereign of Vatican City,[199] a small city-state entirely enclaved within the city of Rome, which is an entity distinct from the Holy See. It is as head of the Holy See, not as head of Vatican City State, that the pope receives ambassadors of states and sends them his own diplomatic representatives.[200] The Holy See also confers orders, decorations and medals, such as the orders of chivalry originating from the Middle Ages.
有名なもののサン・ピエトロ大聖堂は、バチカン市国に位置しており、従来のサイト上にサンピエトロ墓、教皇大聖堂ローマ教区のためには、セントジョンラテラノのArchbasilica楽しんでいますが、ローマの市内に位置は、治外法権の特権はに認定します聖座。
枢機卿の地位は、ローマ教皇庁内の指導者、主要都市で奉仕する司教、著名な神学者など、特定の聖職者に教皇によって授けられた名誉の階級です。統治における助言と援助のために、教皇は枢機卿団に頼ることができます。[201]
Following the death or resignation of a pope,[note 8] members of the College of Cardinals who are under age 80 act as an electoral college, meeting in a papal conclave to elect a successor.[203] Although the conclave may elect any male Catholic as pope, since 1389 only cardinals have been elected.[204]
Canon law
キヤノンの法則（ラテン語：ジュースcanonicum）[205]であるシステムの法律および法律上の原則によって作られ、施行階層当局と順番にその外部組織と政府の規制との使命に向かってカトリック教徒の活動を指揮するためにカトリック教会の教会。[206]ラテン教会の教会法は、最初の近代的な西洋た法体系[207] 、および西で最古の継続的に機能して法体系である[208] [209]の独特の伝統しばらく東部のカトリック教会法 govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris.
Positive ecclesiastical laws, based directly or indirectly upon immutable divine law or natural law, derive formal authority in the case of universal laws from promulgation by the supreme legislator—the Supreme Pontiff—who possesses the totality of legislative, executive and judicial power in his person,[210] while particular laws derive formal authority from promulgation by a legislator inferior to the supreme legislator, whether an ordinary or a delegated legislator. The actual subject material of the canons is not just doctrinal or moral in nature, but all-encompassing of the human condition. It has all the ordinary elements of a mature legal system:[211] laws, courts, lawyers, judges,[211]完全に関節運動法的コードのラテン教会のために[212]と同様に、コード東方典礼カトリック教会のために、[212]の原則の法的解釈、[213]および強制罰則。[214] [215]
Canon law concerns the Catholic Church's life and organisation and is distinct from civil law. In its own field it gives force to civil law only by specific enactment in matters such as the guardianship of minors.[216] Similarly, civil law may give force in its field to canon law, but only by specific enactment, as with regard to canonical marriages.[217] Currently, the 1983 Code of Canon Law is in effect for the Latin Church.[218] The distinct 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches (CCEO, after the Latin initials) applies to the autonomous Eastern Catholic Churches.[219]
Latin and Eastern churches
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カトリックの歴史の最初の千年の間に、ヨーロッパの西部と東部のキリスト教地域でさまざまな種類のキリスト教が発展しました。最も東、伝統の教会は後にカトリック教会との交わりにもはやあるが大分裂1054の、自律特定の教会の両方の伝統のは、現在参加していない、また「教会として知られているがsui iuris」（ラテン語：「自分の権利の"). The largest and most well known is the Latin Church, the only Western-tradition church, with more than 1 billion members worldwide. Relatively small in terms of adherents compared to the Latin Church, are the 23 self-governing Eastern Catholic Churches with a combined membership of 17.3 million as of 2010[update].[220][221][222][223]
The Latin Church is governed by the pope and diocesan bishops directly appointed by him. The pope exercises a direct patriarchal role over the Latin Church, which is considered to form the original and still major part of Western Christianity, a heritage of certain beliefs and customs originating in Europe and northwestern Africa, some of which are inherited by many Christian denominations that trace their origins to the Protestant Reformation.[224]
The Eastern Catholic Churches follow the traditions and spirituality of Eastern Christianity and are churches that have always remained in full communion with the Catholic Church or who have chosen to re-enter full communion in the centuries following the East–West Schism and earlier divisions. These churches are communities of Catholic Christians whose forms of worship reflect distinct historical and cultural influences rather than differences in doctrine.
教会のスイ・イウリスは、東部教会のカノンの規範において、教会内の教義の問題に関する最高の権威として教皇によって認められている「ヒエラルキーによって団結したキリスト教の忠実なグループ」として定義されています。[225]この用語は、東方典礼カトリック教会の相対的な自治を表すためのCCEOの革新であり、[226]教皇との完全な交わりを維持しているが、ラテン教会とは別の統治構造と典礼の伝統を持っている。[221]ラテン教会の規範はこの用語を明示的に使用していませんが、暗黙のうちに同等であると認識されています。
一部の東方典礼カトリック教会は、その教会の司教の教会会議によって選出された総主教によって統治され、[227]他の教会は主要な大司教によって率いられ、[228]他の教会は大都市の下にあり、[229]そして他の教会は次のように組織されています。個々の教会。[230]各教会は、教皇の権威のみを条件として、その内部組織、典礼儀式、典礼暦およびその精神性の他の側面の詳細に対する権威を持っている。[231]ローマ教皇庁には特定の部門があります。Congregation for the Oriental Churches, to maintain relations with them.[232] The pope does not generally appoint bishops or clergy in the Eastern Catholic Churches, deferring to their internal governance structures, but may intervene if he feels it necessary.
Dioceses, parishes, organisations and institutes
Individual countries, regions, or major cities are served by particular churches known as dioceses in the Latin Church, or eparchies in the Eastern Catholic Churches, each overseen by a bishop. As of 2008[update], the Catholic Church has 2,795 dioceses.[234] The bishops in a particular country are members of a national or regional episcopal conference.[235]
教区は小教区に分けられ、それぞれに1人以上の司祭、執事、または信徒の牧師がいます。[236]教区は、秘跡の日々の祝賀と平信徒の牧会の世話に責任があります。[237] 2016年の時点で[update]、世界中に221,700の小教区があります。[238]
ラテン教会では、カトリックの男性は聖餐式の叙階を受けることによって執事または司祭として奉仕することができます。男性と女性は、聖体拝領の臨時大臣、読者（講演者）、または祭壇のサーバーとしての役割を果たすことができます。歴史的に、少年と男性は祭壇のサーバーとしてのみ機能することが許可されてきました。ただし、1990年代以降、少女と女性も許可されています。[239] [注9]
定められたカトリック教徒、などのメンバー信徒が、中に入ることがあり奉献生活など、個別にいずれかの隠者や処女の祝別、または参加して奉献生活の研究所（宗教的な機関や世俗的な機関）ここで取ることを誓い3人の従うように自分の欲望を確認福音派の弁護人の貞操、貧困と服従を。[240]奉献生活の機関の例としては、ベネディクト会、カルメル、ドミニカ、フランシスカン、慈善の宣教師、キリストの軍団、慈悲の姉妹。[240]
「宗教機関は、」両方「を包含する現代用語である宗教的な受注」と「宗教的な集会一度に区別された、」キヤノン法律を。[241]「修道会」および「宗教研究所」という用語は、口語的に同義語として使用される傾向があります。[242]
カトリックの慈善団体以降、カトリック教会は、最大の非政府プロバイダーであり、教育や保健医療の世界インチ [21]
メンバーシップ
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Catholicism is the second largest religious body in the world, surpassed in size only by Sunni Islam.[243] Church membership, defined as baptised Catholics, was 1.345 billion at the end of 2019, which is 18% of the world population.[4] Brazil has the largest Catholic population in the world, followed by Mexico, the Philippines, and the United States.[244] Catholics represent about half of all Christians.[245]
Geographic distribution of Catholics worldwide continues to shift, with 18.7% in Africa, 48.1% in the Americas, 11.0% Asia, 21.2% in Europe, and 0.8% in Oceania.[4]
Catholic ministers include ordained clergy, lay ecclesial ministers, missionaries, and catechists. Also as of the end of 2019, there were 467,938 ordained clergy, including 5,364 bishops, 414,336 priests (diocesan and religious), and 48,238 deacons (permanent).[4] Non-ordained ministers included 3,157,568 catechists, 367,679 lay missionaries, and 39,951 lay ecclesial ministers.[246]
Catholics who have committed to religious or consecrated life instead of marriage or single celibacy, as a state of life or relational vocation, include 54,559 male religious, 705,529 women religious. These are not ordained, nor generally considered ministers unless also engaged in one of the lay minister categories above.[247]
Doctrine
Catholic doctrine has developed over the centuries, reflecting direct teachings of early Christians, formal definitions of heretical and orthodox beliefs by ecumenical councils and in papal bulls, and theological debate by scholars. The church believes that it is continually guided by the Holy Spirit as it discerns new theological issues and is protected infallibly from falling into doctrinal error when a firm decision on an issue is reached.[248][249]
それは、啓示には一つの共通の源、神、そして二つの異なる伝達様式、すなわち聖典と聖伝[250] [251]があり、これらは教導職によって真に解釈されることを教えています。[252] [253]聖書は73冊で構成され、カトリックの聖書46からなる、旧約聖書と27冊の新約聖書の書物。聖伝は、使徒たちの時代から受け継がれてきたと教会が信じている教えで構成されています。[254]聖典と聖伝は、まとめて「信仰の預託」として知られています（ラテン語のdepositumfidei）。これらは、順番に（から教導職によって解釈されてマジ教皇とによって行使された「先生」のため、ラテン語）、教会の教えの権威、司教の大学教皇と労働組合では、ローマの司教。[255]カトリックの教義は、聖座によって出版されたカトリック教会のカテキズムに正式に要約されています。[256] [257]
神の性質
カトリック教会は1があることを保持している永遠のように存在する神、perichoresis 3つの（「相互留置」）位格、または「人物」：父なる神。子なる神;そして、神は聖霊であり、これらは一緒に「聖三位一体」と呼ばれています。[258]
カトリック教徒は、イエス・キリストが三位一体の「二番目の人」、子なる神であると信じています。受肉として知られている出来事において、聖霊の力を通して、神は祝せられたおとめマリアの胎内でキリストの概念を通して人間の本性と一致するようになりました。したがって、キリストは、人間の魂を所有することを含め、完全に神であり、完全に人間であると理解されています。地上でのキリストの使命には、4つの福音書に記録されているように、人々に彼の教えを与え、彼らが従うための彼の模範を示すことが含まれていると教えられています。[259]イエスは地上にいる間は罪のないままであり、はりつけによって不当に処刑されることを許されたと信じられています、人類を神と和解させるための彼自身の犠牲として。この和解は、パスカルミステリーとして知られています。[260]ギリシャ語の「キリスト」とヘブライ語の「メシア」はどちらも「油そそがれた者」を意味し、イエスの死と復活は旧約聖書のメシアの予言の成就であるというキリスト教の信念を指しています。[261]
カトリック教会は、「聖霊は、二つの原則からではなく、一つの原則からとして、父と子から永遠に進む」と独断的に教えています。[262]父は、「原則のない原則」として、聖霊の最初の起源であるが、唯一の息子の父として、彼は息子と共に、聖霊が進む唯一の原則であると考えている。[263]この信念は、381年のニカイア信条のラテン語版に追加されたが、東方キリスト教で使用されたギリシャ語版の信条には含まれていないフィリオクェ問題で表現されている。[264]
教会の性質
カトリック教会は、それが「一つの真の教会」、[11] [265]「人類のための救いの普遍的な秘跡」、[266] [267]、そして「一つの真の宗教」であると教えています。[268]カテキズムによれば、カトリック教会はニカイア信条で「一つの、聖なる、カトリックの、そして使徒的な教会」としてさらに記述されています。[269]これらはまとめて教会の4つの印として知られています。教会は、その創設者がイエス・キリストであると教えています。[270] [37]新約聖書イエスの活動と教え、そして使徒たちを彼の宣教、苦しみ、そして復活の証人として任命することを含む、カトリック教会の設立に不可欠であると考えられるいくつかの出来事を記録します。グレート委員会は、彼の復活の後、彼の仕事を続けるために使徒たちに指示しました。ペンテコステとして知られている出来事における使徒たちへの聖霊の到来は、カトリック教会の公の働きの始まりと見られています。[40]教会は、すべての正式に奉献された司教は、使徒継承として知られている、キリストの使徒からの直系の継承を持っていると教えています。[271] In particular, the Bishop of Rome (the pope) is considered the successor to the apostle Simon Peter, a position from which he derives his supremacy over the church.[272]
カトリックの信念は、教会は「地上にイエスが存在し続けることであり」[273]、それだけで完全な救いの手段を持っていると信じています。[274]を通じて情熱彼につながるキリストの（苦しみ）はりつけ福音書で説明したように、キリストが自分自身父なる神に奉納するために作られたと言われている和解神に人間性を、[275]イエスの復活は、彼を死からの長子、多くの兄弟の中で最初のものにします。[276]神と和解し、キリストの言葉と行いに従うことによって、個人は神の王国に入ることができます。[277] The church sees its liturgy and sacraments as perpetuating the graces achieved through Christ's sacrifice to strengthen a person's relationship with Christ and aid in overcoming sin.[278]
Final judgement
The Catholic Church teaches that, immediately after death, the soul of each person will receive a particular judgement from God, based on their sins and their relationship to Christ.[279][280] This teaching also attests to another day when Christ will sit in universal judgement of all mankind. This final judgement, according to the church's teaching, will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of both a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.[281]
Depending on the judgement rendered following death, it is believed that a soul may enter one of three states of the afterlife:
- Heaven is a state of unending union with the divine nature of God, not ontologically, but by grace. It is an eternal life, in which the soul contemplates God in ceaseless beatitude.[282]
- Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although destined for Heaven, are not fully detached from sin and thus cannot enter Heaven immediately.[283] In Purgatory, the soul suffers, and is purged and perfected. Souls in purgatory may be aided in reaching heaven by the prayers of the faithful on earth and by the intercession of saints.[284]
- Final Damnation: Finally, those who persist in living in a state of mortal sin and do not repent before death subject themselves to hell, an everlasting separation from God.[285] The church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God.[286] No one is predestined to hell and no one can determine with absolute certainty who has been condemned to hell.[287] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death, be illuminated with the truth of the Catholic faith, and thus obtain salvation.[288]いくつかのカトリック神学者で死ぬ大罪なしunbaptised幼児や非キリスト教徒の魂が、と推測している原罪がに割り当てられているどっちつかずの状態、これは公式ではないが、教義教会の。[289]
While the Catholic Church teaches that it alone possesses the full means of salvation,[274] it also acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to "impel towards Catholic unity"[290] and "tend and lead toward the Catholic Church",[290] and thus bring people to salvation, because these separated communities contain some elements of proper doctrine, albeit admixed with errors. It teaches that anyone who is saved is saved through the Catholic Church but that people can be saved outside of the ordinary means known as baptism of desire, and by pre-baptismal martyrdom, known as baptism of blood無敵の無知の状態が存在する場合と同様に、無敵の無知それ自体は救いの手段ではありませんが。[291]
聖人と献身
聖人は、一方で（も歴史的に中空として知られている）、神に神聖や肖像や近の例外度を有すると認められる者である列聖は、キリスト教の教会が死亡した人は聖人だったことを宣言したことにより、行為であります、その宣言に基づいて、その人は認められた聖人の「列聖」またはリストに含まれます。[292] [293]聖人として名誉を与えられた最初の人は殉教者でした。彼らの死の敬虔な伝説は、キリストへの彼らの信仰の真実の肯定と見なされました。しかし、4世紀までに、「告白者」、つまり死ぬことではなく言葉と命によって信仰を告白した人々は、公に崇拝され始めました。。
カトリック教会では、ラテン語と東方典礼カトリック教会の両方で、列聖の行為は使徒座に留保されており、列聖の候補者がそのような模範的で聖なる方法で生き、死んだという広範な証拠を必要とする長いプロセスの終わりに起こります彼が聖人として認められるに値すること。教会の神聖さの公式の認識は、その人が今天国にいること、そして彼が公に召喚され、聖人の典礼を含む教会の典礼で公式に言及されるかもしれないことを意味します。列聖は、ローマ典礼の典礼における聖人の普遍的な崇拝を可能にします。単に地元でのみ崇拝する許可を得るために列福が必要です。[294]
献身は「信心深さの外部慣行」であり、カトリック教会の公式典礼の一部ではありませんが、カトリック教徒の人気のある精神修行の一部です。[295]これらには、聖人の崇拝、特に聖母マリアの崇拝に関するさまざまな慣行が含まれます。その他の祈りの慣行は、十字架の駅、聖心イエスの、イエスの聖なる顔、[296]様々なscapulars、様々な聖人にnovenas、[297] 巡礼[298]へと祈りを御聖体、297 [ ]との崇拝saintly images such as the santos.[299] The bishops at the Second Vatican Council reminded Catholics that "devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonise with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them."[300]
Virgin Mary
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Catholic Mariology deals with the doctrines and teachings concerning the life of the Mary, mother of Jesus, as well as the veneration of Mary by the faithful. Mary is held in special regard, declared the Mother of God (Greek: Θεοτόκος, romanized: Theotokos, lit. 'God-bearer'), and believed as dogma to have remained a virgin throughout her life.[301] Further teachings include the doctrines of the Immaculate Conception (her own conception without the stain of original sin) and the Assumption of Mary (that her body was assumed directly into heaven at the end of her life). Both of these doctrines were defined as infallible dogma, by Pope Pius IX in 1854 and Pope Pius XII in 1950 respectively,[302] but only after consulting with the Catholic bishops throughout the world to ascertain that this is a Catholic belief.[303] In the Eastern Catholic churches, however, they continue to celebrate the feast under the name of the Dormition of the Mother of God on the same date.[304] The teaching that Mary died before being assumed significantly precedes the idea that she did not. St John Damascene wrote that "St Juvenal, Bishop of Jerusalem, at the Council of Chalcedon (451), made known to the Emperor Marcian and Pulcheria, who wished to possess the body of the Mother of God, that Mary died in the presence of all the Apostles, but that her tomb, when opened, upon the request of St Thomas, was found empty; wherefrom the Apostles concluded that the body was taken up to Heaven."[305])
Devotions to Mary are part of Catholic piety but are distinct from the worship of God.[306] Practices include prayers and Marian art, music, and architecture. Several liturgical Marian feasts are celebrated throughout the Church Year and she is honoured with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church because, by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.[302] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions such as the Hail Mary, the Rosary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are common Catholic practices.[307] Pilgrimage to the sites of several Marian apparitions affirmed by the church, such as Lourdes, Fátima, and Guadalupe,[308] are also popular Catholic devotions.[309]
Sacraments
The Catholic Church teaches that it was entrusted with seven sacraments that were instituted by Christ. The number and nature of the sacraments were defined by several ecumenical councils, most recently the Council of Trent.[310][note 10] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick (formerly called Extreme Unction, one of the "Last Rites"), Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals that Catholics see as signs of God's presence and effective channels of God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).[311] The Catechism of the Catholic Church categorises the sacraments into three groups, the "sacraments of Christian initiation", "sacraments of healing" and "sacraments at the service of communion and the mission of the faithful". These groups broadly reflect the stages of people's natural and spiritual lives which each sacrament is intended to serve.[312]
The liturgies of the sacraments are central to the church's mission. According to the Catechism:
In the liturgy of the New Covenant every liturgical action, especially the celebration of the Eucharist and the sacraments, is an encounter between Christ and the Church. The liturgical assembly derives its unity from the "communion of the Holy Spirit" who gathers the children of God into the one Body of Christ. This assembly transcends racial, cultural, social—indeed, all human affinities.[313]
According to church doctrine, the sacraments of the church require the proper form, matter, and intent to be validly celebrated.[314] In addition, the Canon Laws for both the Latin Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches govern who may licitly celebrate certain sacraments, as well as strict rules about who may receive the sacraments.[315] Notably, because the church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,[316] those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden to receive the sacrament until they have received absolution through the sacrament of Reconciliation (Penance).[317] Catholics are normally obliged to abstain from eating for at least an hour before receiving the sacrament.[317] Non-Catholics are ordinarily prohibited from receiving the Eucharist as well.[315][318]
Catholics, even if they were in danger of death and unable to approach a Catholic minister, may not ask for the sacraments of the Eucharist, penance or anointing of the sick from someone, such as a Protestant minister, who is not known to be validly ordained in line with Catholic teaching on ordination.[319][320] Likewise, even in grave and pressing need, Catholic ministers may not administer these sacraments to those who do not manifest Catholic faith in the sacrament. In relation to the churches of Eastern Christianity not in communion with the Holy See, the Catholic Church is less restrictive, declaring that "a certain communion in sacris, and so in the Eucharist, given suitable circumstances and the approval of Church authority, is not merely possible but is encouraged."[321]
Sacraments of initiation
Baptism
As viewed by the Catholic Church, Baptism is the first of three sacraments of initiation as a Christian.[322] It washes away all sins, both original sin and personal actual sins.[323] It makes a person a member of the church.[324] As a gratuitous gift of God that requires no merit on the part of the person who is baptised, it is conferred even on children,[325] who, though they have no personal sins, need it on account of original sin.[326] If a new-born child is in a danger of death, anyone—be it a doctor, a nurse, or a parent—may baptise the child.[327] Baptism marks a person permanently and cannot be repeated.[328] The Catholic Church recognises as valid baptisms conferred even by people who are not Catholics or Christians, provided that they intend to baptise ("to do what the Church does when she baptises") and that they use the Trinitarian baptismal formula.[329]
Confirmation
The Catholic Church sees the sacrament of confirmation as required to complete the grace given in baptism.[330] When adults are baptised, confirmation is normally given immediately afterwards,[331] a practice followed even with newly baptised infants in the Eastern Catholic Churches.[332] In the West confirmation of children is delayed until they are old enough to understand or at the bishop's discretion.[333] In Western Christianity, particularly Catholicism, the sacrament is called confirmation, because it confirms and strengthens the grace of baptism; in the Eastern Churches, it is called chrismation, because the essential rite is the anointing of the person with chrism,[334] a mixture of olive oil and some perfumed substance, usually balsam, blessed by a bishop.[334][335] Those who receive confirmation must be in a state of grace, which for those who have reached the age of reason means that they should first be cleansed spiritually by the sacrament of Penance; they should also have the intention of receiving the sacrament, and be prepared to show in their lives that they are Christians.[336]
Eucharist
For Catholics, the Eucharist is the sacrament which completes Christian initiation. It is described as "the source and summit of the Christian life".[337] The ceremony in which a Catholic first receives the Eucharist is known as First Communion.[338]
The Eucharistic celebration, also called the Mass or Divine liturgy, includes prayers and scriptural readings, as well as an offering of bread and wine, which are brought to the altar and consecrated by the priest to become the body and the blood of Jesus Christ, a change called transubstantiation.[339][note 11] The words of consecration reflect the words spoken by Jesus during the Last Supper, where Christ offered his body and blood to his Apostles the night before his crucifixion. The sacrament re-presents (makes present) the sacrifice of Jesus on the cross,[340] and perpetuates it. Christ's death and resurrection give grace through the sacrament that unites the faithful with Christ and one another, remits venial sin, and aids against committing moral sin (though mortal sin itself is forgiven through the sacrament of penance).[341]
Sacraments of healing
The two sacraments of healing are the Sacrament of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.
Penance
The Sacrament of Penance (also called Reconciliation, Forgiveness, Confession, and Conversion[342]) exists for the conversion of those who, after baptism, separate themselves from Christ by sin.[343] Essential to this sacrament are acts both by the sinner (examination of conscience, contrition with a determination not to sin again, confession to a priest, and performance of some act to repair the damage caused by sin) and by the priest (determination of the act of reparation to be performed and absolution).[344] Serious sins (mortal sins) should be confessed at least once a year and always before receiving Holy Communion, while confession of venial sins also is recommended.[345] The priest is bound under the severest penalties to maintain the "seal of confession", absolute secrecy about any sins revealed to him in confession.[346]
Anointing of the sick
While chrism is used only for the three sacraments that cannot be repeated, a different oil is used by a priest or bishop to bless a Catholic who, because of illness or old age, has begun to be in danger of death.[347] This sacrament, known as Anointing of the Sick, is believed to give comfort, peace, courage and, if the sick person is unable to make a confession, even forgiveness of sins.[348]
The sacrament is also referred to as Unction, and in the past as Extreme Unction, and it is one of the three sacraments that constitute the last rites, together with Penance and Viaticum (Eucharist).[349]
Sacraments at the service of communion
According to the Catechism, there are two sacraments of communion directed towards the salvation of others: priesthood and marriage.[350] Within the general vocation to be a Christian, these two sacraments "consecrate to specific mission or vocation among the people of God. Men receive the holy orders to feed the Church by the word and grace. Spouses marry so that their love may be fortified to fulfil duties of their state".[351]
Holy Orders
The sacrament of Holy Orders consecrates and deputes some Christians to serve the whole body as members of three degrees or orders: episcopate (bishops), presbyterate (priests) and diaconate (deacons).[352][353] The church has defined rules on who may be ordained into the clergy. In the Latin Church, the priesthood is generally restricted to celibate men, and the episcopate is always restricted to celibate men.[354] Men who are already married may be ordained in certain Eastern Catholic churches in most countries,[355] and the personal ordinariates and may become deacons even in the Western Church[356][357] (see Clerical marriage). But after becoming a Catholic priest, a man may not marry (see Clerical celibacy) unless he is formally laicised.
All clergy, whether deacons, priests or bishops, may preach, teach, baptise, witness marriages and conduct funeral liturgies.[358] Only bishops and priests can administer the sacraments of the Eucharist, Reconciliation (Penance) and Anointing of the Sick.[359][360] Only bishops can administer the sacrament of Holy Orders, which ordains someone into the clergy.[361]
Matrimony
The Catholic Church teaches that marriage is a social and spiritual bond between a man and a woman, ordered towards the good of the spouses and procreation of children; according to Catholic teachings on sexual morality, it is the only appropriate context for sexual activity. A Catholic marriage, or any marriage between baptised individuals of any Christian denomination, is viewed as a sacrament. A sacramental marriage, once consummated, cannot be dissolved except by death.[362][note 12] The church recognises certain conditions, such as freedom of consent, as required for any marriage to be valid; In addition, the church sets specific rules and norms, known as canonical form, that Catholics must follow.[365]
The church does not recognise divorce as ending a valid marriage and allows state-recognised divorce only as a means of protecting the property and well-being of the spouses and any children. However, consideration of particular cases by the competent ecclesiastical tribunal can lead to declaration of the invalidity of a marriage, a declaration usually referred to as an annulment. Remarriage following a divorce is not permitted unless the prior marriage was declared invalid.[366]
Liturgy
Among the 24 autonomous (sui iuris) churches, numerous liturgical and other traditions exist, called rites, which reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than differences in belief.[367] In the definition of the Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, "a rite is the liturgical, theological, spiritual, and disciplinary patrimony, culture and circumstances of history of a distinct people, by which its own manner of living the faith is manifested in each Church sui iuris".[368]
The liturgy of the sacrament of the Eucharist, called the Mass in the West and Divine Liturgy or other names in the East, is the principal liturgy of the Catholic Church.[369] This is because it is considered the propitiatory sacrifice of Christ himself.[370] Its most widely used form is that of the Roman Rite as promulgated by Paul VI in 1969 and revised by Pope John Paul II in 2002. In certain circumstances, the 1962 form of the Roman Rite remains authorised in the Latin Church. Eastern Catholic Churches have their own rites. The liturgies of the Eucharist and the other sacraments vary from rite to rite, reflecting different theological emphases.
Western rites
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The Roman Rite is the most common rite of worship used by the Catholic Church, with the Ordinary Form of the Roman Rite form of the Mass. Its use is found worldwide, originating in Rome and spreading throughout Europe, influencing and eventually supplanting local rites.[371] The present ordinary form of Mass in the Roman Rite, found in the post-1969 editions of the Roman Missal, is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, using an officially approved translation from the original text in Latin. An outline of its major liturgical elements can be found in the sidebar.
In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI affirmed the licitness of continued use of the 1962 Roman Missal as an "extraordinary form" (forma extraordinaria) of the Roman Rite, speaking of it also as an usus antiquior ("older use"), and issuing new more permissive norms for its employment.[372] An instruction issued four years later spoke of the two forms or usages of the Roman Rite approved by the pope as the ordinary form and the extraordinary form ("the forma ordinaria" and "the forma extraordinaria").[373]
The 1962 edition of the Roman Missal, published a few months before the Second Vatican Council opened, was the last that presented the Mass as standardised in 1570 by Pope Pius V at the request of the Council of Trent and that is therefore known as the Tridentine Mass.[316] Pope Pius V's Roman Missal was subjected to minor revisions by Pope Clement VIII in 1604, Pope Urban VIII in 1634, Pope Pius X in 1911, Pope Pius XII in 1955, and Pope John XXIII in 1962. Each successive edition was the ordinary form of the Roman Rite Mass until superseded by a later edition. When the 1962 edition was superseded by that of Paul VI, promulgated in 1969, its continued use at first required permission from bishops;[374] but Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum allowed free use of it for Mass celebrated without a congregation and authorised parish priests to permit, under certain conditions, its use even at public Masses. Except for the scriptural readings, which Pope Benedict allowed to be proclaimed in the vernacular language, it is celebrated exclusively in liturgical Latin.[375] These permissions were largely removed by Pope Francis in 2021, who issued the motu proprio Traditionis custodes in order to emphasize the Ordinary Form as promulgated by Popes Paul VI and John Paul II.[187]
Since 2014, clergy in the small personal ordinariates set up for groups of former Anglicans under the terms of the 2009 document Anglicanorum Coetibus[376] are permitted to use a variation of the Roman Rite called "Divine Worship" or, less formally, "Ordinariate Use",[377] which incorporates elements of the Anglican liturgy and traditions,[note 13] an accommodation protested by Anglican leaders.
In the Archdiocese of Milan, with around five million Catholics the largest in Europe,[378] Mass is celebrated according to the Ambrosian Rite. Other Latin Church rites include the Mozarabic[379] and those of some religious institutes.[380] These liturgical rites have an antiquity of at least 200 years before 1570, the date of Pope Pius V's Quo primum, and were thus allowed to continue.[381]
Eastern rites
The Eastern Catholic Churches share common patrimony and liturgical rites as their counterparts, including Eastern Orthodox and other Eastern Christian churches who are no longer in communion with the Holy See. These include churches that historically developed in Russia, Caucasus, the Balkans, North Eastern Africa, India and the Middle East. The Eastern Catholic Churches are groups of faithful who have either never been out of communion with the Holy See or who have restored communion with it at the cost of breaking communion with their associates of the same tradition.[382]
The rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches include the Byzantine Rite, in its Antiochian, Greek and Slavonic varieties; the Alexandrian Rite; the Syriac Rite; the Armenian Rite; the Maronite Rite and the Chaldean Rite. Eastern Catholic Churches have the autonomy to set the particulars of their liturgical forms and worship, within certain limits to protect the "accurate observance" of their liturgical tradition.[383] In the past some of the rites used by the Eastern Catholic Churches were subject to a degree of liturgical Latinisation. However, in recent years Eastern Catholic Churches have returned to traditional Eastern practices in accord with the Vatican II decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum.[384] Each church has its own liturgical calendar.[385]
Social and cultural issues
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Catholic social teaching
Catholic social teaching, reflecting the concern Jesus showed for the impoverished, places a heavy emphasis on the corporal works of mercy and the spiritual works of mercy, namely the support and concern for the sick, the poor and the afflicted.[386][387] Church teaching calls for a preferential option for the poor while canon law prescribes that "The Christian faithful are also obliged to promote social justice and, mindful of the precept of the Lord, to assist the poor."[388] Its foundations are widely considered to have been laid by Pope Leo XIII's 1891 encyclical letter Rerum novarum which upholds the rights and dignity of labour and the right of workers to form unions.
Catholic teaching regarding sexuality calls for a practice of chastity, with a focus on maintaining the spiritual and bodily integrity of the human person. Marriage is considered the only appropriate context for sexual activity.[389] Church teachings about sexuality have become an issue of increasing controversy, especially after the close of the Second Vatican Council, due to changing cultural attitudes in the Western world described as the sexual revolution.
The church has also addressed stewardship of the natural environment, and its relationship to other social and theological teachings. In the document Laudato si', dated 24 May 2015, Pope Francis critiques consumerism and irresponsible development, and laments environmental degradation and global warming.[390] The pope expressed concern that the warming of the planet is a symptom of a greater problem: the developed world's indifference to the destruction of the planet as humans pursue short-term economic gains.[391]
Social services
The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world.[21] In 2010, the Catholic Church's Pontifical Council for Pastoral Assistance to Health Care Workers said that the church manages 26% of health care facilities in the world, including hospitals, clinics, orphanages, pharmacies and centres for those with leprosy.[392]
The church has always been involved in education, since the founding of the first universities of Europe. It runs and sponsors thousands of primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities throughout the world[393][394] and operates the world's largest non-governmental school system.[395]
Religious institutes for women have played a particularly prominent role in the provision of health and education services,[396] as with orders such as the Sisters of Mercy, Little Sisters of the Poor, the Missionaries of Charity, the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart, the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament and the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul.[397] The Catholic nun Mother Teresa of Calcutta, India, founder of the Missionaries of Charity, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her humanitarian work among India's poor.[398] Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo won the same award in 1996 for "work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor".[399]
The church is also actively engaged in international aid and development through organisations such as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, Aid to the Church in Need, refugee advocacy groups such as the Jesuit Refugee Service and community aid groups such as the Saint Vincent de Paul Society.[400]
Sexual morality
The Catholic Church calls all members to practise chastity according to their state in life. Chastity includes temperance, self-mastery, personal and cultural growth, and divine grace. It requires refraining from lust, masturbation, fornication, pornography, prostitution and rape. Chastity for those who are not married requires living in continence, abstaining from sexual activity; those who are married are called to conjugal chastity.[401]
In the church's teaching, sexual activity is reserved to married couples, whether in a sacramental marriage among Christians or in a natural marriage where one or both spouses are unbaptised. Even in romantic relationships, particularly engagement to marriage, partners are called to practise continence, in order to test mutual respect and fidelity.[402] Chastity in marriage requires in particular conjugal fidelity and protecting the fecundity of marriage. The couple must foster trust and honesty as well as spiritual and physical intimacy. Sexual activity must always be open to the possibility of life;[403] the church calls this the procreative significance. It must likewise always bring a couple together in love; the church calls this the unitive significance.[404]
Contraception and certain other sexual practices are not permitted, although natural family planning methods are permitted to provide healthy spacing between births, or to postpone children for a just reason.[405] Pope Francis said in 2015 that he is worried that the church has grown "obsessed" with issues such as abortion, same-sex marriage and contraception and has criticised the Catholic Church for placing dogma before love, and for prioritising moral doctrines over helping the poor and marginalised.[406][407]
Divorce and declarations of nullity
Canon law makes no provision for divorce between baptised individuals, as a valid, consummated sacramental marriage is considered to be a lifelong bond.[408] However, a declaration of nullity may be granted when the proof is produced that essential conditions for contracting a valid marriage were absent from the beginning—in other words, that the marriage was not valid due to some impediment. A declaration of nullity, commonly called an annulment, is a judgement on the part of an ecclesiastical tribunal determining that a marriage was invalidly attempted.[409] In addition, marriages among unbaptised individuals may be dissolved with papal permission under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[363][364] An attempt at remarriage following divorce without a declaration of nullity places "the remarried spouse … in a situation of public and permanent adultery". An innocent spouse who lives in continence following divorce, or couples who live in continence following a civil divorce for a grave cause, do not sin.[410]
Worldwide, diocesan tribunals completed over 49000 cases for nullity of marriage in 2006. Over the past 30 years about 55 to 70% of annulments have occurred in the United States. The growth in annulments has been substantial; in the United States, 27,000 marriages were annulled in 2006, compared to 338 in 1968. However, approximately 200,000 married Catholics in the United States divorce each year; 10 million total as of 2006[update].[411][note 14] Divorce is increasing in some predominantly Catholic countries in Europe.[413] In some predominantly Catholic countries, it is only in recent years that divorce was introduced (Italy (1970), Portugal (1975), Brazil (1977), Spain (1981), Ireland (1996), Chile (2004) and Malta (2011)), while the Philippines and the Vatican City have no procedure for divorce. (The Philippines does, however, allow divorce for Muslims.)
Contraception
The church teaches that sexual intercourse should only take place between a man and woman who are married to each other, and should be without the use of birth control or contraception. In his encyclical Humanae vitae[414] (1968), Pope Paul VI firmly rejected all contraception, thus contradicting dissenters in the church that saw the birth control pill as an ethically justifiable method of contraception, though he permitted the regulation of births by means of natural family planning. This teaching was continued especially by John Paul II in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae, where he clarified the church's position on contraception, abortion and euthanasia by condemning them as part of a "culture of death" and calling instead for a "culture of life".[415]
Many Western Catholics have voiced significant disagreement with the church's teaching on contraception.[416] Catholics for Choice, a political lobbyist group that is not associated with the Catholic Church, stated in 1998 that 96% of U.S. Catholic women had used contraceptives at some point in their lives and that 72% of Catholics believed that one could be a good Catholic without obeying the church's teaching on birth control.[417] Use of natural family planning methods among United States Catholics purportedly is low, although the number cannot be known with certainty.[note 15] As Catholic health providers are among the largest providers of services to patients with HIV/AIDS worldwide, there is significant controversy within and outside the church regarding the use of condoms as a means of limiting new infections, as condom use ordinarily constitutes prohibited contraceptive use.[420]
Similarly, the Catholic Church opposes artificial insemination regardless of whether it is homologous (from the husband) or heterologous (from a donor) and in vitro fertilisation (IVF), saying that the artificial process replaces the love and conjugal act between a husband and wife.[421] In addition, it opposes IVF because it might cause disposal of embryos; Catholics believe an embryo is an individual with a soul who must be treated as such.[422] For this reason, the church also opposes abortion.[423]
Due to the anti-abortion stance, some Catholics oppose receiving vaccines derived from fetal cells obtained via abortion. On 21 December 2020, and regarding COVID-19 vaccination, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith emitted a document stating that "it is morally acceptable to receive Covid-19 vaccines that have used cell lines from aborted fetuses in their research and production process" when no alternative vaccine is available, since "the moral duty to avoid such passive material cooperation is not obligatory if there is a grave danger, such as the otherwise uncontainable spread of a serious pathological agent."[424][425] The document states that receiving the vaccine does not constitute endorsement of the practice of abortion, and that "the morality of vaccination depends not only on the duty to protect one's own health, but also on the duty to pursue the common good."[425] The document cautions further:
Those who, however, for reasons of conscience, refuse vaccines produced with cell lines from aborted fetuses, must do their utmost to avoid, by other prophylactic means and appropriate behavior, becoming vehicles for the transmission of the infectious agent. In particular, they must avoid any risk to the health of those who cannot be vaccinated for medical or other reasons, and who are the most vulnerable.[425]
Homosexuality
The Catholic Church also teaches that "homosexual acts" are "contrary to the natural law", "acts of grave depravity" and "under no circumstances can they be approved", but that persons experiencing homosexual tendencies must be accorded respect and dignity.[426] According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church,
The number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible. This inclination, which is objectively disordered, constitutes for most of them a trial. They must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided… Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times by the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection.[426]
This part of the Catechism was quoted by Pope Francis in a 2013 press interview in which he remarked, when asked about an individual:
I think that when you encounter a person like this [the individual he was asked about], you must make a distinction between the fact of a person being gay from the fact of being a lobby, because lobbies, all are not good. That is bad. If a person is gay and seeks the Lord and has good will, well who am I to judge them?[427]
This remark and others made in the same interview were seen as a change in the tone, but not in the substance of the teaching of the church,[428] which includes opposition to same-sex marriage.[429] Certain dissenting Catholic groups oppose the position of the Catholic Church and seek to change it.[430]
Holy orders and women
Women and men religious engage in a variety of occupations, from contemplative prayer, to teaching, to providing health care, to working as missionaries.[396][431] While Holy Orders are reserved for men, Catholic women have played diverse roles in the life of the church, with religious institutes providing a formal space for their participation and convents providing spaces for their self-government, prayer and influence through many centuries. Religious sisters and nuns have been extensively involved in developing and running the church's worldwide health and education service networks.[432]
Efforts in support of the ordination of women to the priesthood led to several rulings by the Roman Curia or popes against the proposal, as in Declaration on the Question of the Admission of Women to the Ministerial Priesthood (1976), Mulieris Dignitatem (1988) and Ordinatio sacerdotalis (1994). According to the latest ruling, found in Ordinatio sacerdotalis, Pope John Paul II affirmed that the Catholic Church "does not consider herself authorised to admit women to priestly ordination".[433] In defiance of these rulings, opposition groups such as Roman Catholic Womenpriests have performed ceremonies they affirm as sacramental ordinations (with, reputedly, an ordaining male Catholic bishop in the first few instances) which, according to canon law, are both illicit and invalid and considered mere simulations[434] of the sacrament of ordination.[435][note 16] The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith responded by issuing a statement clarifying that any Catholic bishops involved in ordination ceremonies for women, as well as the women themselves if they were Catholic, would automatically receive the penalty of excommunication (latae sententiae, literally "with the sentence already applied", i.e. automatically), citing canon 1378 of canon law and other church laws.[436]
Sexual abuse cases
From the 1990s, the issue of sexual abuse of minors by Catholic clergy and other church members has become the subject of civil litigation, criminal prosecution, media coverage and public debate in countries around the world. The Catholic Church has been criticised for its handling of abuse complaints when it became known that some bishops had shielded accused priests, transferring them to other pastoral assignments where some continued to commit sexual offences.
In response to the scandal, formal procedures have been established to help prevent abuse, encourage the reporting of any abuse that occurs and to handle such reports promptly, although groups representing victims have disputed their effectiveness.[437] In 2014, Pope Francis instituted the Pontifical Commission for the Protection of Minors for the safeguarding of minors.[438]
See also
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- Anti-Catholicism
- Catechism of the Catholic Church
- Catholic Church by country
- Catholic spirituality
- Criticism of the Catholic Church
- Glossary of the Catholic Church
- List of Catholic religious institutes
- Lists of Catholics
- Role of Christianity in civilisation
Notes
- ^ While the Catholic Church considers itself to be the authentic continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ, it teaches that other Christian churches and communities can be in an imperfect communion with the Catholic Church.[13][14]
- ^ Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (c. 110 AD): "Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, there is the universal [katholike] Church."[25]
- ^ Examples uses of "Roman Catholic" by the Holy See: the encyclicals Divini Illius Magistri Archived 23 September 2010 at the Wayback Machine of Pope Pius XI and Humani generis Archived 19 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine of Pope Pius XII; joint declarations signed by Pope Benedict XVI with Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams on 23 November 2006 Archived 2 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine and Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople on 30 November 2006.
- ^ Example use of "Roman" Catholic by a bishop's conference: The Baltimore Catechism, an official catechism authorised by the Catholic bishops of the United States, states: "That is why we are called Roman Catholics; to show that we are united to the real successor of St Peter" (Question 118) and refers to the church as the "Roman Catholic Church" under Questions 114 and 131 (Baltimore Catechism).
- ^ Joyce, George (1913). . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Regarding Peter as the first Bishop of Rome, "It is not, however, difficult to show that the fact of his [Peter's] bishopric is so well attested as to be historically certain. In considering this point, it will be well to begin with the third century, when references to it become frequent and work backwards from this point. In the middle of the third century St. Cyprian expressly terms the Roman See the Chair of St. Peter, saying that Cornelius has succeeded to "the place of Fabian which is the place of Peter" (Ep 55:8; cf. 59:14). Firmilian of Caesarea notices that Stephen claimed to decide the controversy regarding rebaptism on the ground that he held the succession from Peter (Cyprian, Ep. 75:17). He does not deny the claim: yet certainly, had he been able, he would have done so. Thus in 250, the Roman episcopate of Peter was admitted by those best able to know the truth, not merely at Rome but in the churches of Africa and of Asia Minor. In the first quarter of the century (about 220) Tertullian (De Pud. 21) mentions Callistus's claim that Peter's power to forgive sins had descended in a special manner to him. Had the Roman Church been merely founded by Peter and not reckoned him as its first bishop, there could have been no ground for such a contention. Tertullian, like Firmilian, had every motive to deny the claim. Moreover, he had himself resided at Rome, and would have been well aware if the idea of a Roman episcopate of Peter had been, as is contended by its opponents, a novelty dating from the first years of the third century, supplanting the older tradition according to which Peter and Paul were co-founders and Linus first bishop. About the same period, Hippolytus (for Lightfoot is surely right in holding him to be the author of the first part of the "Liberian Catalogue" – "Clement of Rome", 1:259) reckons Peter in the list of Roman bishops…"[47] - ^ While ruling contraception to be prohibited, Pope Paul VI did, however, consider natural family planning methods to be morally permissible if used with just cause.
- ^ According to Catholic teaching, Jesus Christ is the 'invisible Head' of the Church[190][191][192] while the pope is the 'visible Head'.[193][194]
- ^ The last resignation occurred on 28 February 2013, when Pope Benedict XVI retired, citing ill health in his advanced age. The next most recent resignation occurred in 1415, as part of the Council of Constance's resolution of the Avignon Papacy.[202]
- ^ In 1992, the Vatican clarified the 1983 Code of Canon Law removed the requirement that altar servers be male; permission to use female altar servers within a diocese is at the discretion of the bishop.[239]
- ^ Other councils that addressed the sacraments include the Second Council of Lyon (1274); Council of Florence (1439); as well as the Council of Trent (1547)[310]
- ^ For an outline of the Eucharistic liturgy in the Roman Rite, see the side bar in the "Worship and liturgy".
- ^ Marriages involving unbaptised individuals are considered valid, but not sacramental. While sacramental marriages are insoluble, non-sacramental marriages may be dissolved under certain situations, such as a desire to marry a Catholic, under Pauline or Petrine privilege.[363][364]
- ^ The Divine Worship variant of the Roman Rite differs from the "Anglican Use" variant, which was introduced in 1980 for the few United States parishes established in accordance with a pastoral provision for former members of the Episcopal Church (the American branch of the Anglican Communion). Both uses adapted Anglican liturgical traditions for use within the Catholic Church.
- ^ With regard to divorce in the United States, according to the Barna Group, among all who have been married, 33% have been divorced at least once; among American Catholics, 28% (the study did not track religious annulments).[412]
- ^ Regarding use of natural family planning, in 2002, 24% of the U.S. population identified as Catholic,[418] but according to a 2002 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, of sexually active Americans avoiding pregnancy, only 1.5% were using NFP.[419]
- ^ According to Roman Catholic Womanpriests: "The principal consecrating Roman Catholic male bishop who ordained our first women bishops is a bishop with apostolic succession within the Roman Catholic Church in full communion with the pope."[435]
References
NOTE: CCC stands for Catechism of the Catholic Church. The number following CCC is the paragraph number, of which there are 2865. The numbers cited in the Compendium of the CCC are question numbers, of which there are 598. Canon law citations from the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches are labelled "CCEO, Canon xxx", to distinguish from canons of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, which are labelled "Canon xxx".
- ^ Marshall, Thomas William (1844). Notes of the Episcopal Polity of the Holy Catholic Church. London: Levey, Rossen and Franklin. ASIN 1163912190.
- ^ Stanford, Peter. "Roman Catholic Church". BBC Religions. BBC. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, p. 18.
- ^ a b c d e f "Pubblicati l'Annuario Pontificio 2021 e l'Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae 2019" (in Italian). L'Osservatore Romano. 25 March 2021. Archived from the original on 25 March 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
- ^ Calderisi, Robert. Earthly Mission - The Catholic Church and World Development; TJ International Ltd; 2013; p.40
- ^ "Laudato Si". Vermont Catholic. 8 (4, 2016–2017, Winter): 73. Retrieved 19 December 2016.
- ^ Marty, Martin E. (29 April 2021). "Roman Catholicism". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ Mark A. Noll. The New Shape of World Christianity (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191.
- ^ a b O'Collins, p. v (preface).
- ^ "Lumen gentium". www.vatican.va. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ a b c "Vatican congregation reaffirms truth, oneness of Catholic Church". Catholic News Service. Archived from the original on 10 July 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, p. 7.
- ^ "Responses to Some Questions regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine of the Church". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013.
It is possible, according to Catholic doctrine, to affirm correctly that the Church of Christ is present and operative in the churches and ecclesial communities not yet fully in communion with the Catholic Church, on account of the elements of sanctification and truth that are present in them.
- ^ "Declaration on the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church Dominus Iesus § 17". Vatican.va.
Therefore, there exists a single Church of Christ, which subsists in the Catholic Church, governed by the Successor of Peter and by the Bishops in communion with him. The Churches which, while not existing in perfect Koinonia with the Catholic Church, remain united to her by means of the closest bonds, that is, by apostolic succession and a valid Eucharist, are true particular churches. Therefore, the Church of Christ is present and operative also in these Churches, even though they lack full communion with the Catholic Church since they do not accept the Catholic doctrine of the Primacy, which, according to the will of God, the Bishop of Rome objectively has and exercises over the entire Church. … 'The Christian faithful are therefore not permitted to imagine that the Church of Christ is nothing more than a collection—divided, yet in some way one—of Churches and ecclesial communities; nor are they free to hold that today the Church of Christ nowhere really exists, and must be considered only as a goal which all Churches and ecclesial communities must strive to reach.'
- ^ Holy Bible: Matthew 16:19
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 890.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 835.
The rich variety of … theological and spiritual heritages proper to the local churches 'unified in a common effort shows all the more resplendently the catholicity of the undivided Church'.(cf. Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, 23)
- ^ Colin Gunton. "Christianity among the Religions in the Encyclopedia of Religion", Religious Studies, Vol. 24, number 1, page 14. In a review of an article from the Encyclopedia of Religion, Gunton writes: "[T]he article [on Catholicism in the encyclopedia] rightly suggests caution, suggesting at the outset that Roman Catholicism is marked by several different doctrinal, theological and liturgical emphases."
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraphs 1322–1327.
[T]he Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith
- ^ "The Four Marian Dogmas". Catholic News Agency. Retrieved 25 March 2017.
- ^ a b c Agnew, John (12 February 2010). "Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church". Geopolitics. 15 (1): 39–61. doi:10.1080/14650040903420388. S2CID 144793259.
- ^ John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, ISBN 0-88141-006-3, p. 7
- ^ Elwell, Walter; Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001), Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers, pp. 266, 828, ISBN 0-8423-7089-7
- ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 127.
- ^ a b Thurston, Herbert (1908). "Catholic". In Knight, Kevin (ed.). The Catholic Encyclopedia. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ "Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26". Tertullian.org. 6 August 2004. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
- ^ Edictum de fide catholica
- ^ "Eastern Orthodoxy", Encyclopædia Britannica online.
- ^ "catholic, adj. and n." Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press, June 2014. Web. 7 August 2014. Excerpt: "After the separation of East and West 'Catholic' was assumed as its descriptive epithet by the Western or Latin Church, as 'Orthodox' was by the Eastern or Greek. At the Reformation, the term 'Catholic' was claimed as its exclusive right by the body remaining under the Roman obedience, in opposition to the 'Protestant' or 'Reformed' National Churches. These, however, also retained the term, giving it, for the most part, a wider and more ideal or absolute sense, as the attribute of no single community, but only of the whole communion of the saved and saintly in all churches and ages. In England, it was claimed that the Church, even as Reformed, was the national branch of the 'Catholic Church' in its proper historical sense." Note: The full text of the OED definition of "catholic" can be consulted here.
- ^ McBrien, Richard (2008). The Church. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available Browseinside.harpercollins.com Archived 27 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism… and the Protestant Reformation. … In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title Catholic Church, while the East appropriated the name Orthodox Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called Protestant."
- ^ "Roman Catholic, n. and adj". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 24 October 2017.
- ^ "Documents of the II Vatican Council". Vatican.va. Archived from the original on 5 June 2004. Retrieved 4 May 2009.
Note: The pope's signature appears in the Latin version.
- ^ "Decrees of the First Vatican Council – Papal Encyclicals". 29 June 1868.
- ^ "The Bull of Indiction of the Sacred Oecumenical and General Council of Trent under the Sovereign Pontiff, Paul III." The Council of Trent: The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent. Ed. and trans. J. Waterworth. London: Dolman, 1848. Retrieved from History.Hanover.edu, 12 September 2018.
- ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Roman Catholic". www.newadvent.org.
- ^ "Kenneth D. Whitehead". www.ewtn.com.
- ^ a b Bokenkotter 2004, p. 30.
- ^ Kreeft, p. 980.
- ^ Burkett, p. 263
- ^ a b Barry, p. 46.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraph 1076.
The Church was made manifest to the world on the day of Pentecost by the outpouring of the Holy Spirit…
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
"He [the Holy Spirit] is essentially the Spirit of truth (John 14:16–17; 15:26), Whose office it is to … to teach the Apostles the full meaning of it [of the truth] (John 14:26; 16:13). With these Apostles, He will abide forever (John 14:16). Having descended on them at Pentecost, He will guide them in their work (Acts 8:29)… - ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraphs 880, 883.
- ^ Christian Bible, Matthew 16:13–20
- ^ "Saint Peter the Apostle: Incidents important in interpretations of Peter". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 8 November 2014.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church (2nd ed.). Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 2019. Paragraphs 880–881.
- ^ a b Joyce, George (1913). . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ "Was Peter in Rome?". Catholic Answers. 10 August 2004. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
if Peter never made it to the capital, he still could have been the first pope, since one of his successors could have been the first holder of that office to settle in Rome. After all, if the papacy exists, it was established by Christ during his lifetime, long before Peter is said to have reached Rome. There must have been a period of some years in which the papacy did not yet have its connection to Rome.
- ^ a b c Brown, Raymond E. (2003). 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible. Paulist Press. pp. 132–134. ISBN 978-0-8091-4251-4.
- ^ Oscar Cullmann (1962), Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr (2 ed.), Westminster Press p. 234
- ^ Henry Chadwick (1993), The Early Church, Penguin Books p. 18
- ^ Ehrman, Bart D (2006). Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. US: Oxford University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0.
Peter, in short, could not have been the first bishop of Rome, because the Roman church did not have anyone as its bishop until about a hundred years after Peter's death.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, p. 24.
- ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, pp. 155–159, 164.
- ^ Valliere, Paul (2012). Conciliarism. Cambridge University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-107-01574-6.
- ^ Patriarch, Bartholomew (2008). Encountering the Mystery. Random House. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-385-52561-9.
- ^ Michalopulos, George C. (11 September 2009). "Canon 28 and Eastern Papalism: Cause or Effect?". Archived from the original on 10 January 2013.
- ^ Noble, p. 214.
- ^ "Rome (early Christian)". Cross, F. L., ed., The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Ayer, Joseph Cullen, Jr. (1913). A Source Book for Ancient Church History: From the Apostolic Age to the Close of the Conciliar Period. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 538.
- ^ Ayer, p. 553
- ^ Baumgartner, Frederic J. (2003). Behind Locked Doors: A History of the Papal Elections. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 10–12. ISBN 978-0-312-29463-2.
- ^ Duffy, Eamon. 1997. Saints & Sinners: A History of the Popes. Yale University Press. pp. 66–67
- ^ Le Goff, p. 14: "The face of the barbarian invaders had been transformed by another crucial fact. Although some of them had remained pagan, another part of them, not the least, had become Christian. But, by a curious chance, which was to leave serious consequences, these converted barbarians—the Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vandals, and later the Lombards—had been converted to Arianism, which had become a heresy after the council of Nicaea. They had in fact been converted by followers of the 'apostle of the Goths', Wulfilas."
- ^ Le Goff, p. 14: "Thus what should have been a religious bond was, on the contrary, a subject of discord and sparked off bitter conflicts between Arian barbarians and Catholic Romans."
- ^ Le Goff, p. 21: "Clovis' master-stroke was to convert himself and his people not to Arianism, like the other barbarian kings, but to Catholicism."
- ^ Le Goff, p. 21
- ^ Drew, Katherine Fischer (2014). The Lombard Laws. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. xviii. ISBN 978-0-8122-1055-2.
- ^ Cahill, Thomas (1995). How The Irish Saved Civilization: The Untold Story of Ireland's Heroic Role from the Fall of Rome to the Rise of Medieval Europe. New York City: Penguin Random House.
- ^ Woods, pp. 115–27
- ^ Duffy, p. 133.
- ^ Woods Jr., Thomas. "Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilisation". National Review Book Service. Archived from the original on 22 August 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2006.
- ^ Pirenne, Henri (1980) [1925]. Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade. Frank D. Halsey (trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 27–32. ISBN 978-0-691-00760-1.
- ^ Richards, Jeffrey (2014). The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-317-67817-5.
- ^ Walker, Willston (1985). History of the Christian Church. Simon and Schuster. pp. 250–251. ISBN 978-0-684-18417-3.
- ^ Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–7), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–7) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
- ^ Riley-Smith, p. 8
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Phillips, Jonathan (2005). The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople. Penguin Books. p. PT19. ISBN 978-1-101-12772-8.
- ^ Woods, pp. 44–48
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 158–159.
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
- ^ a b Morris, p. 232
- ^ McManners, p. 240
- ^ Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). Constantinople and the West. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-11880-8.
- ^ Collinge, William J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Catholicism. Scarecrow Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8108-5755-1.
- ^ Koschorke, pp. 13, 283
- ^ Hastings (1994), p. 72
- ^ Koschorke, p. 21
- ^ Koschorke, pp. 3, 17
- ^ Lyons (2013), p. 17
- ^ a b Bokenkotter 2004, p. 215.
- ^ Vidmar, p. 184.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 223–224.
- ^ Fernández, Luis Martínez (2000). "Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean". Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 51 (2): 347–365. doi:10.1017/S0022046900004255. S2CID 162296826.
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 235–237.
- ^ a b Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233
- ^ a b Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–178
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 242–244.
- ^ Maxwell, Melvin. Bible Truth or Church Tradition, p. 70
- ^ Pollard, pp. 7–8
- ^ Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 283–285.
- ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Collins, p. 176
- ^ Duffy, pp. 214–216
- ^ "John Paul II, General Audience". Vatican.va. 24 March 1993. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
- ^ Leith, Creeds of the Churches (1963), p. 143
- ^ Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 232
- ^ Fahlbusch, The Encyclopedia of Christianity (2001), p. 729
- ^ Kertzer, David I. (2006). Prisoner of the Vatican. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. PT155. ISBN 978-0-547-34716-5.
- ^ D'Agostino, Peter R. (2010). "'Utterly Faithless Specimens': Italians in the Catholic Church in America". In Connell, William J.; Gardaphé, Fred (eds.). Anti-Italianism: Essays on a Prejudice. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 33–34. ISBN 978-0-230-11532-3.
- ^ Adrian Hastings, The Church in Africa, 1450 - 1950, Oxford: Clarendon, 1996, 394 - 490
- ^ John Pollard "Papal Diplomacy and The Great War" (2014).
- ^ a b Chadwick, Owen, pp. 264–265
- ^ Scheina, p. 33.
- ^ Riasanovsky 617
- ^ Riasanovsky 634
- ^ Payne, p. 13
- ^ Alonso, pp. 395–396
- ^ Blood of Spain, Ronald Fraser p. 415, collective letter of bishops of Spain, addressed to the bishops of the world. ISBN 0-7126-6014-3
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'[T]he Roman Pontiff [the pope], … has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered.' 'The college or body of bishops has no authority unless united with the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, as its head.' As such, this college has 'supreme and full authority over the universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff.'
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The parish priest is the proper clergyman in charge of the congregation of the parish entrusted to him. He exercises the pastoral care of the community entrusted to him under the authority of the diocesan bishop, whose ministry of Christ he is called to share, so that for this community he may carry out the offices of teaching, sanctifying and ruling with the cooperation of other priests or deacons and with the assistance of lay members of Christ's faithful, in accordance with the law.
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The Roman Catholic Church, which consists of 23 particular Churches in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. The Catholic Church is the world's second largest religious body after Sunni Islam.
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Roughly half of all Christians worldwide are Roman Catholics
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[I]n order to preserve the Church in the purity of the faith handed on by the apostles, Christ who is the Truth willed to confer on her a share in his own infallibility.
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by the light of the Holy Spirit … vigilantly warding off any errors that threaten their flock.
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The Second Vatican Council's Decree on Ecumenism explains: 'For it is through Christ's Catholic Church alone, which is the universal help toward salvation, that the fullness of the means of salvation can be obtained. It was to the apostolic college alone, of which Peter is the head, that we believe that our Lord entrusted all the blessings of the New Covenant, in order to establish on earth the one Body of Christ into which all those should be fully incorporated who belong in any way to the People of God.' [Unitatis redintegratio 3 § 5.]
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The Last Judgment will reveal even to its furthest consequences the good each person has done or failed to do during his earthly life
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The word 'hallow' means 'saint,' in that 'hallow' is just an alternative form of the word 'holy' ('hallowed be Thy name').
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The word hallow was simply another word for saint.
- ^ "Beatification, in the present discipline, differs from canonisation in this: that the former implies (1) a locally restricted, not a universal, permission to venerate, which is (2) a mere permission, and no precept; while canonisation implies a universal precept" (Beccari, Camillo. "Beatification and Canonisation". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 2. New York, New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. Accessed 27 May 2009.).
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To receive Holy Communion one must be fully incorporated into the Catholic Church and be in the state of grace, that is, not conscious of being in mortal sin. Anyone who is conscious of having committed a grave sin must first receive the sacrament of Reconciliation before going to Communion. Also important for those receiving Holy Communion are a spirit of recollection and prayer, observance of the fast prescribed by the Church, and an appropriate disposition of the body (gestures and dress) as a sign of respect for Christ.
- ^ a b Kreeft, p. 326
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