カナダ
カナダ | |
---|---|
国歌: 「オーカナダ」 | |
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資本 | オタワ45°24'N75 °40'W / 45.400°N 75.667°W |
最大の都市 | トロント |
公用語 | |
民族グループ (2016)[2] | 民族のリスト
|
宗教 (2011)[3] | 宗教のリスト
|
住民の呼称 | カナダ人 |
政府 | 連邦 議会 立憲君主制[4] |
• モナーク | エリザベス2世 |
• 総督 | メアリーサイモン |
• 首相 | ジャスティン・トルドー |
立法府 | 議会 |
• アッパーハウス | 上院 |
• 衆議院 | 庶民院 |
独立 イギリスから | |
• 連合 | 1867年7月1日 |
1931年12月11日 | |
• パトリエーション | 1982年4月17日 |
領域 | |
•総面積 | 9,984,670 km 2(3,855,100平方マイル)(2番目) |
• 水 (%) | 11.76(2015年現在)[5] |
•総土地面積 | 9,093,507 km 2(3,511,023平方マイル) |
人口 | |
•2021年第1四半期の見積もり | ![]() |
•2016年国勢調査 | 35,151,728 [7] |
• 密度 | 3.92 / km 2(10.2 / sq mi)(185番目) |
GDP (PPP) | 2021年の見積もり |
• 合計 | ![]() |
• 一人あたり | ![]() |
GDP (名目) | 2021年の見積もり |
• 合計 | ![]() |
• 一人あたり | ![]() |
ジニ (2018) | ![]() 中 |
HDI (2019) | ![]() 非常に高い ・ 16日 |
通貨 | カナダドル($)(CAD) |
タイムゾーン | UTC −3.5〜−8 |
•夏(DST) | UTC −2.5〜−7 |
日付形式 | yyyy - mm - dd (AD)[11] |
運転側 | 右 |
市外局番 | +1 |
インターネットTLD |
カナダは北アメリカの国です。その10の州と3つの地域は、大西洋から太平洋、そして北極海に広がり、998万平方キロメートル(385万平方マイル)をカバーし、総面積で世界第2位の国となっています。米国との南と西の国境は、 8,891 km(5,525マイル)に及び、世界最長の二国間国境です。カナダの首都はオタワであり、その3つの最大の大都市圏はトロント、モントリオール、バンクーバーです。。
先住民は何千年もの間、現在のカナダに絶えず住んでいます。 16世紀に始まり、イギリスとフランスの遠征隊が探検し、後に大西洋岸に沿って定住しました。さまざまな武力紛争の結果として、フランスは1763年に北アメリカのほぼすべての植民地を放棄しました。1867年に、自治領を通じて3つのイギリス領北アメリカ植民地が連合し、カナダは4つの州の連邦 領として形成されました。これにより、州と準州の増加と、自治権を高めるプロセスが始まりました。イギリス。この拡大する自治権は、1931年のウェストミンスター憲章によって強調され、1982年のカナダ法で最高潮に達し、英国議会への法的依存の痕跡を断ち切りました。
カナダは議会制民主主義であり、ウェストミンスターの伝統における立憲君主制です。国の政府の頭部はある首相の能力のおかげで事務所を保持している-who自信コマンド選出の下院により任命された-との総督表す、君主として機能し、国家元首を。この国は英連邦王国であり、連邦レベルでは公式にバイリンガルです。それは最高の中にランク付けされます政府の透明性、市民の自由、生活の質、経済的自由、教育の国際的な測定において。それは世界で最も民族的に多様で多文化的な国の1つであり、他の多くの国からの大規模な移民の産物です。カナダと米国との長い関係は、カナダの経済と文化に大きな影響を与えてきました。
高度に発展した国であるカナダは、世界で17番目に高い名目一人当たり所得を持ち、人間開発指数で16番目に高いランキングを持っています。その先進国経済は世界で10番目に大きく、主にその豊富な天然資源と十分に発達した国際貿易ネットワークに依存しています。カナダは、国連、NATO、G7、10のグループ、G20、経済協力開発機構(OECD)、世界貿易機関(WTO)、英連邦、北極評議会、フランコフォニー国際機関、アジア太平洋経済協力フォーラム、米州機構。
語源
カナダの語源についてはさまざまな理論が仮定されていますが、この名前は現在、「村」または「定住」を意味するセントローレンスイロコイ語のカナタに由来するものとして受け入れられています。[12] 1535年、現在のケベックシティ地域の先住民は、この言葉を使用して、フランスの探検家ジャック・カルティエをスタダコナの村に案内しました。[13]カルティエは後にカナダという言葉を使用して、その特定の村だけでなく、ドナコーナ(スタダコナの首長)の支配下にある地域全体を指した。[13]1545年までに、ヨーロッパの本や地図は、セントローレンス川沿いのこの小さな地域をカナダと呼び始めました。[13]
16世紀から18世紀初頭にかけて、「カナダ」とは、セントローレンス川沿いにあるヌーベルフランスの一部を指します。[14] 1791年、この地域はアッパーカナダとローワーカナダと呼ばれる2つのイギリス植民地となり、まとめてカナダと名付けられた。1841年にカナダのイギリス領として組合に入るまで。[15]
1867年の連合の際、ロンドン会議で新しい国の正式名称としてカナダが採用され、国の称号としてドミニオンという言葉が授与されました。[16] 1950年代までに、カナダのドミニオンという用語は、カナダを「連邦の領域」と見なしたイギリスでは使用されなくなりました。[17]ルイ・サンローラン政府は、1951年にカナダの法令でドミニオンを使用する慣行を終了した。[18] [19]
1982年に、完全にカナダの制御下で、カナダの憲法をもたらすカナダ法の成立は、唯一呼ばカナダ国民の祝日の名前はにドミニオン日から変更された後に、その年ながら、カナダの日。[20]ドミニオンという用語は、連邦政府と州を区別するために使用されましたが、第二次世界大戦後、連邦という用語がドミニオンに取って代わりました。[21]
歴史
先住民族
現代カナダの先住民族が含ま先住民、イヌイット、およびメティスを、[22]最後のものの混合血液先住民の人々はヨーロッパの入植者と結婚し、その後、自分のアイデンティティを開発したときに17世紀半ばに起源人。[22]
北米の最初の住民は、一般に、ベーリング地峡を経由してシベリアから移動し、少なくとも14、000年前に到着したと仮定されています。[23] [24]古インドの遺跡旧クロウフラッツとブルーフィッシュ洞窟は、カナダにおける人間の居住の最も古いサイトの2つです。[25]先住民社会の特徴には、定住、農業、複雑な社会階層、および貿易ネットワークが含まれていました。[26] [27]これらの文化のいくつかは、ヨーロッパの探検家が15世紀後半から16世紀初頭に到着するまでに崩壊し、考古学的調査によってのみ発見されました。[28]
最初のヨーロッパ人の入植時の先住民の人口は20万人[29]から200万人[30]であり、カナダの先住民に関する王立委員会によって承認された50万人の数字であると推定されています。[31]ヨーロッパの植民地化の結果、先住民の人口は40〜80%減少し、ベオスック人などのいくつかの先住民は姿を消した。[32]減少は、インフルエンザ、はしか、天然痘などのヨーロッパの病気の転移を含むいくつかの原因に起因しています。彼らは自然免疫を持っていなかった[29] [33]毛皮貿易をめぐる紛争、植民地当局や入植者との紛争、そして先住民の土地の入植者への喪失とそれに続くいくつかの国の自給自足の崩壊。[34] [35]
紛争がないわけではありませんが、ヨーロッパ系カナダ人の先住民やイヌイットの人々との初期の交流は比較的平和でした。[36]ファースト・ネーションとメティスの人々は、特に北米の毛皮貿易中にヨーロッパのクーリュール・デ・ボワと航海者が大陸を探検するのを支援する役割のために、カナダのヨーロッパの植民地の発展に重要な役割を果たしました。[37]イヌイットは一般にヨーロッパ人入植者との交流が限られていたが、王冠と先住民はヨーロッパの植民地時代に交流を始めた。[38] しかし、18世紀後半から、ヨーロッパのカナダ人は先住民に自分たちの文化に溶け込むように勧めました。[39]これらの試みは、19世紀後半から20世紀初頭にかけて、強制的な統合と移転によって最高潮に達した。[40]救済の期間は、の任命を開始し、進行中であるカナダの真実和解委員会によるカナダ政府、2008年に[41]
ヨーロッパの植民地化

カナダの東海岸を探検した最初のヨーロッパ人は、北欧の探検家レイフ・エリクソンであったと考えられています。[42] [43]西暦1000年頃、ノース人はニューファンドランドの北端にあるランスオメドーに数年しか続かなかった小さな野営地を建設した。[44]いいえ、さらにヨーロッパの探検は、イタリアの船員1497、まで発生したジョン・カボットが探求し、カナダの主張大西洋岸の王の名の下にヘンリー7世。[45] 1534年、フランスの探検家ジャック・カルティエがセントローレンス湾を探検した7月24日、彼は「フランス王の長寿」という言葉が書かれた10メートル(33フィート)の十字架を植え、フランソワ1世の名でヌーベルフランスの領土を所有しました。[46] 16世紀初頭、バスクとポルトガルによって開拓された航海技術を備えたヨーロッパの船員が、大西洋岸に沿って季節的な捕鯨と漁業の前哨基地を設立した。[47]一般に、大航海時代の初期の入植地は、厳しい気候、交易路のナビゲートに関する問題、およびスカンジナビアでの競合する生産物の組み合わせにより、短命であったように思われる。[48] [49]
1583年には、サー・ハンフリー・ギルバートは、によって王室の特権の女王エリザベスI、設立セントジョンズ、ニューファンドランドの最初の北アメリカと、英語の季節キャンプ。[50] 1600年、フランス人はセントローレンス沿いのタドゥサックに最初の季節商館を設立した。[44]フランスの探検サミュエル・ド・シャンプランは、 1603年に到着し、最初に永久年間のヨーロッパの入植地を設立ポートロイヤル(1608年)(1605における)とケベック。[51]ヌーベルフランスの入植者の中で、カナディアンズ広範囲に定住セントローレンス川渓谷とアカディア人は現代定住マリの毛皮商人としながら、カトリックの宣教師たちが探求五大湖、ハドソン湾、そしてミシシッピ流域にルイジアナ州。[52]ビーバー戦争は、北アメリカの毛皮貿易のコントロールの上に17世紀半ばに勃発しました。[53]
イギリス人は1610年にニューファンドランドに追加の入植地を設立し、その直後に南部の13植民地が設立されました。[54] [55] 1689年から1763年の間に植民地時代の北アメリカで一連の4つの戦争が勃発した。後期の戦争は七年戦争の北アメリカの劇場を構成しました。[56]ノバスコシア本土は、1713年のユトレヒト条約で英領になり、カナダとヌーベルフランスの大部分は、七年戦争後の1763年に英領になりました。[57]
イギリス領北アメリカ
1763年の王立布告は、先住民の条約の権利を確立し、ヌーベルフランスからケベック州を創設し、ケープブレトン島をノバスコシアに併合しました。[20]セントジョンズ島(現在のプリンスエドワード島)は1769年に別の植民地になりました。[58]ケベックでの紛争を回避するために、英国議会は1774年のケベック法を可決し、ケベックの領土を五大湖とオハイオバレーに拡大しました。[59]さらに重要なことに、ケベック法13植民地がイギリスの支配に対してますます動揺していたときに、ケベックに特別な自治権と自己管理の権利を与えました。[60]それは再確立フランス語、カトリックの信仰、そしてフランスの民法を13植民地とは対照的に独立運動の成長をオフstaving、そこに。[61]布告とケベック法は、13植民地の多くの居住者を怒らせ、アメリカ独立戦争以前の数年間に反英感情をさらに煽った。[20]
アメリカ独立戦争が成功した後、1783年のパリ条約は、新しく形成されたアメリカ合衆国の独立を認め、平和の条件を設定し、五大湖の南とミシシッピ川の東にあるイギリス領北アメリカの領土を新しい国に譲渡しました。[62]アメリカ独立戦争はまた、アメリカ独立と戦った入植者であるロイヤリストの大規模な移住を引き起こした。多くの人がカナダ、特にアトランティックカナダに移り、そこで到着すると既存の地域の人口分布が変化しました。ニューブランズウィック沿海州のロイヤリスト集落の再編成の一環としてノバスコシアから分割され、ニューブランズウィック州セントジョンがカナダ初の都市に法人化されました。[63]中央カナダでの英語を話すロイヤリストの流入に対応するために、1791年の植民地統治法は、カナダの州をフランス語を話すローワーカナダ(後のケベック)と英語を話すアッパーカナダ(後のオンタリオ)に分割し、それぞれに自分で選んだ立法議会。[64]
カナダズはでメインフロントた1812年の戦争、米国との間でイギリス。平和は1815年に来ました。境界は変更されませんでした。[65]移民が1815と1850の間に英国から96万上到着して、より高いレベルで再開[66]新規到着が含ま逃げる難民グレートアイルランド飢饉ならびにゲール-speakingスコットランドによって変位ハイランドクリアランス。[67]感染症は、1891年以前にカナダに移住したヨーロッパ人の25から33パーセントを殺した。[29]
責任ある政府への欲求は、1837年の反乱をもたらしました。[68]ダラム報告書は、その後、英語の文化に責任を負う政府とフランス系カナダ人の同化をお勧めします。[20]連合1840年の行為は、カナダの統一省にカナダズを合併し、責任ある政府は1849年で、英国、北米のすべての州のために設立された[69]の署名オレゴン条約英国とによって、1846年に米国が終了しますオレゴン境界紛争に沿って国境西方拡張、第49回を平行に。これにより、バンクーバー島(1849)とブリティッシュコロンビア(1858)のイギリス植民地への道が開かれました。[70]米国による1867年のアラスカ購入により、太平洋岸に沿って国境が確立されたが、アラスカ-ユーコンおよびアラスカ-紀元前の国境の正確な境界については、今後数年間、いくつかの論争が続くだろう。[71]
連合と拡大

いくつかの憲法会議の後、1867年英国北アメリカ法は1867年7月1日にカナダ連邦を公式に宣言し、当初はオンタリオ州、ケベック州、ノバスコシア州、ニューブランズウィック州の4つの州で構成されていました。[72] [73]カナダはの制御を想定ルパート・ランドと北西地域を形成するために、ノースウェスト準州メティス不満が点火し、レッドリバー反乱との州の作成マニトバを7月1870年の[74]英国コロンビアとバンクーバー島(統合されていた)1866年に)10年以内に州のビクトリアに伸びる大陸横断鉄道の約束で1871年に連合に加わった[75]一方、プリンスエドワード島は1873年に加わった。[76] 1898年、北西部のクロンダイクゴールドラッシュの間にテリトリー、議会はユーコンテリトリーを作成しました。アルバータ州とサスカチュワン州は1905年に州になりました。[76] 1871年から1896年の間に、カナダの人口のほぼ4分の1が南に移住して米国に移住しました[77]。
西部を開放し、ヨーロッパの移民を奨励するために、議会は3つの大陸横断鉄道(カナダ太平洋鉄道を含む)の建設を後援し、ドミニオン土地法との和解のために草原を開き、北西騎馬警察を設立してその権限を主張することを承認しましたこの領土。[78] [79]この西方への拡大と国造りの時期は、カナディアン・プレイリーズの多くの先住民を「インドの居留地」に移し、[80]ヨーロッパ民族のブロック集落への道を切り開いた。。[81]これは、カナダ西部のプレーンズバイソンの崩壊と、土地を支配するヨーロッパの牧場と小麦畑の導入を引き起こした。[82]先住民は、バイソンと彼らの伝統的な狩猟地の喪失により、広範囲にわたる飢饉と病気を見た。[83]連邦政府は、先住民が保護区に移動することを条件として、緊急救援を提供した。[84]この間、カナダは先住民に対する支配を教育、政府および法的権利にまで拡大するインディアン法を導入した。[85]
20世紀初頭
英国は1867年の英国北アメリカ法の下でカナダの外交の支配を維持していたため、1914年の戦争宣言により、カナダは自動的に第一次世界大戦に突入しました。[86]西部戦線に派遣された志願兵は、後にカナダ軍団の一部となり、ヴィミーリッジの戦いやその他の主要な戦争で重要な役割を果たした。[87]第一次世界大戦に従軍した約625,000人のカナダ人のうち、約60,000人が殺され、さらに172,000人が負傷した。[88] 1917年の徴兵危機は、ユニオニストが勃発した。徴兵制で軍の減少するアクティブメンバーの数を増やすという内閣の提案は、フランス語を話すケベック人からの激しい反対に見舞われた。[89]兵役法は、ケベック州外フランス語の語学学校をめぐる紛争と相まって深く疎外フランス語圏のカナダ人と一時的に自由党を分割し、それが、兵役義務をもたらしました。[89] 1919年、カナダはイギリスとは独立して国際連盟に加盟し[87]、ウェストミンスター憲章は1931年にカナダの独立を確認した。[90]
1930年代初頭のカナダの大恐慌は景気後退を経験し、国中の困難につながりました。[91]不況に対応して、サスカチュワン州の協同連邦党(CCF )は、1940年代と1950年代に福祉国家の多くの要素(トミー・ダグラスによって開拓された)を導入した。[92]ウィリアム・リヨン・マッケンジー・キング首相の助言により、1939年9月10日、イギリスの7日後にジョージ6世によってドイツとの戦争が発効したと宣言された。遅れはカナダの独立を強調した。[87]
最初のカナダ陸軍部隊は1939年12月にイギリスに到着しました。第二次世界大戦中に、合計で100万人以上のカナダ人が軍隊に所属し、約42,000人が死亡し、さらに55,000人が負傷しました。[93]カナダ軍が1942失敗を含め、戦争の多くの重要な戦いで重要な役割を果たしてディエップの戦い、イタリアの連合軍の侵攻、ノルマンディー上陸作戦、ノルマンディーの戦いを、そしてスヘルデの戦い1944年[87]カナダは、その国が占領されている間、オランダの君主制に亡命を提供し、オランダはナチスドイツからの解放。[94]
カナダ経済は、その産業がカナダ、イギリス、中国、およびソビエト連邦のために軍事資材を製造したため、戦争中に活況を呈しました。[87] 1944年のケベックでの別の徴兵危機にもかかわらず、カナダは大軍と強力な経済で戦争を終えた。[95]
現代
大恐慌の金融危機により、ニューファンドランドの支配者は1934年に責任政府を放棄し、英国知事が統治する直轄植民地になりました。[96] 2回の国民投票の後、ニューファンドランド人は1949年に州としてカナダに加わることを決議した。[97]
カナダの戦後の経済成長は、歴代の自由政府の政策と相まって、1965年にカエデの葉の旗が採択され[98]、公式のバイリンガリズム(英語とフランス語)が実施されたことを特徴とする、新しいカナダのアイデンティティの出現につながりました。)1969年に[99]、1971年に公式の多文化主義の制度化。[100]メディケア、カナダ年金制度、カナダ学生ローンなどの社会民主主義プログラムも開始された。 とはいえ、州政府、特にケベック州とアルバータ州は、管轄区域への侵入としてこれらの多くに反対しました。[101]
最後に、憲法会議の別のシリーズは、英国のもたらしたカナダ法1982、patriationの作成と同時にイギリスからカナダの憲法の、権利と自由のカナダ憲章。[102] [103] [104]カナダは独立国として完全な主権を確立していたが、君主は主権として保持されている。[105] [106] 1999年、ヌナブト準州は連邦政府との一連の交渉の後、カナダの3番目の領土になりました。[107]
同時に、ケベックは1960年代の静かなる革命を通じて深刻な社会的および経済的変化を経験し、世俗的なナショナリスト運動を生み出しました。[108]ラジカルケベック解放戦線(FLQ)が着火10月危機を1970年に爆破し、誘拐の一連の[109]とsovereignist パルティケベックを編成、1976年に選出された失敗投票1980年に主権会合です。1990年にミーチ湖合意を通じてケベックのナショナリズムに憲法で対応する試みは失敗した。[110]これはケベックのブロック・ケベコワと西部のカナダ改革党の活性化。[111] [112] 1995年に続いた2回目の国民投票では、主権は50.6から49.4パーセントのよりスリムなマージンで拒否された。[113] 1997年、最高裁が判決を下した一方的離脱を違憲となり地域によっておよびクラリティ法が連盟から交渉し出発の条件を概説し、議会で可決されました。[110]
ケベックの主権の問題に加えて、1980年代後半から1990年代初頭にかけて多くの危機がカナダ社会を震撼させました。これらには、1985年のエアインディア182便の爆発、カナダ史上最大の大量殺戮が含まれていました。[114]エコールポリテクニークの大虐殺1989年に、大学の射撃女子学生を対象に、[115]および1990年のオカの衝突[116]は、政府と先住民グループとの間の多くの暴力的な対立の最初のものです。[117]カナダも湾岸戦争に参加した1990年に米国主導の連合軍の一部として、旧ユーゴスラビアでのUNPROFORミッションを含む、1990年代のいくつかの平和維持ミッションで活動しました。[118]カナダは2001年に軍隊をアフガニスタンに派遣したが、2003年に米国主導のイラク侵攻に参加することを拒否した。[119]
2011年には、カナダ軍がNATOに主導の介入に参加したリビアの内戦、[120]とも闘っに関わるようになったイスラム国家の2010年代半ばにイラクでの反乱を。[121]カナダでのCOVID-19パンデミックは2020年1月27日に始まり、社会的および経済的混乱が広がった。[122] 2021年、カナダの先住民寄宿学校の跡地の近くで数百人の先住民の遺骨が発見された。[123]カナダのカトリック教会によって管理され、1828年から1997年までカナダ政府によって資金提供されたこれらの寄宿学校先住民族の子供たちをユーロカナダの文化に同化させようとしました。[124]
地理
総面積(水域を含む)で、カナダはロシアに次ぐ世界第2位の国です。[125]しかしながら、陸地だけで、カナダは淡水湖の割合が世界で最も大きいため、4番目にランクされています。[126]東の大西洋から北の北極海に沿って、そして西の太平洋に伸びるこの国は、9,984,670 km 2(3,855,100平方マイル)の領土を含んでいます。[127]カナダには広大な海域もあり、世界最長の海岸線は243,042キロメートル(151,019マイル)です。[128][129]カナダは、8,891 km(5,525マイル)に及ぶ世界最大の国境を米国と共有することに加えて、北東のグリーンランドおよびフランスの海外集団であるサンピエール島およびミクロン島と海上境界線を共有しています。南東。 [130]カナダはまた、北極から817 km(508マイル)にあるエルズミーア島の北端(緯度82.5°N)にある、世界最北端の集落であるカナダ軍ステーションアラートの本拠地でもあります。 [131]
カナダの物理的な地理は大きく異なります。北極圏の森林が全国に広がり、北極圏北部とロッキー山脈を通る氷が目立ち、南西部の比較的平坦なカナディアンプレイリーズが生産的な農業を促進しています。[127]五大湖は、低地がカナダの経済的生産の多くをホストしているセントローレンス川(南東部)に水を供給します。[127]カナダには2,000,000を超える湖があり、そのうち563は100 km 2(39平方マイル)を超えており、世界の淡水の多くが含まれています。[132] [133]カナディアンロッキー、コースト山脈、北極コルディレラにも淡水氷河があります。[134] カナダ地質学で有する、アクティブ多くの地震と潜在活火山、特にマウント厳しい局面山塊、マウントガリバルディ、マウントケーリー山塊、及びマウントEdziza火山複合体。[135]
生物多様性

カナダは、15の陸域と5つの海洋のエコゾーンに分かれています。[136]これらのエコゾーンは、カナダの野生生物の80,000を超える分類された種を含み、同数はまだ正式に認識または発見されていません。[137]国内の人間活動、侵入種、環境問題により、現在800種以上が失われるリスクがあります。[138]カナダの景観の半分以上は無傷であり、人間開発は比較的少ない。[139]カナダの北方林は、地球上で最大の無傷の森林であり、約3,000,000kmであると考えられています。2(1,200,000 sq mi)道路、都市、または産業に邪魔されない。[140]最後の終わり以来氷期、カナダから成っている8つの別個森林領域、[141]林(世界森林土地の約8%)によって覆われ、その土地の面積の42%を有します。[142]
国土と淡水の約12.1%が保護区であり、そのうち11.4%が保護区に指定されています。[143]領海の約13.8パーセントが保護されており、そのうち8.9パーセントが保護地域に指定されています。[143] 1885年に設立されたカナダ初の国立公園であるバンフ国立公園は、6,641平方キロメートル(2,564平方マイル)[144]の山岳地帯に広がり、多くの氷河と氷原、密な針葉樹林、高山の風景があります。[145]カナダ最古の州立公園、1893年に設立されたアルゴンキン州立公園は、7,653.45平方キロメートル(2,955.01平方マイル)の面積をカバーし、2,400を超える湖と1,200キロメートルの小川と川がある原生林が支配的です。[146] レイクスーペリア国立海洋保護区は、約10,000平方キロメートル(3,900平方マイル)の湖底、その上に重なる淡水、および60平方キロメートル(23平方マイル)の島と本土の関連する海岸線にまたがる世界最大の淡水保護地域です。[147]カナダ最大の国立野生生物地域は、11,570.65平方キロメートル(4,467.45平方マイル)に及ぶスコットアイランズ海洋国立野生生物地域です[148]。ブリティッシュコロンビア州の海鳥の40%以上の重要な繁殖と営巣の生息地を保護します。[149]カナダの18のユネスコ生物圏保護区は、235,000平方キロメートル(91,000平方マイル)の総面積をカバーしています。[150]
気候
カナダ全土の冬と夏の平均最高気温は地域によって異なります。冬は国の多くの地域、特に大陸性気候を経験する内陸部とプレーリー州で厳しくなります。大陸性気候では、毎日の平均気温は-15 °C(5 °F)に近くなり ますが、-40°C(40°C)を下回ることもあります。 −40°F)激しい風冷えを伴う。[151]非沿岸地域では、雪が1年のほぼ6か月間地面を覆う可能性がありますが、北部の一部では、雪が一年中続く可能性があります。ブリティッシュコロンビア州沿岸部は温暖な気候で、冬は穏やかで雨が降ります。東海岸と西海岸では、平均最高気温は一般に20s°C(70s°F)の低さですが、海岸間では、夏の平均最高気温は25〜30°C(77〜86°F)の範囲で、一部の内部の場所の温度は、40°C(104°F)を超える場合があります。[152]
カナダ北部の 多くは氷と永久凍土で覆われています。しかし、カナダの気候変動の結果、北極圏は世界平均の3倍の温暖化を続けているため、永久凍土層の将来は不透明です。[153]カナダの陸地の年間平均気温は、1.7°C(3.1°F)上昇し、1948年以降、さまざまな地域で1.1から2.3°C(2.0から4.1°F)の範囲で変化しています。[154]温暖化は北部全体とプレーリーでより高かった。[154]カナダの南部地域では、カナダと米国の両方からの大気汚染が、金属製錬、電力会社への石炭の燃焼、および車両の排出によって引き起こされています。酸性雨は、カナダの水路、森林の成長、農業生産性に深刻な影響を及ぼしています。[155]
政府と政治
カナダは「と記載されて完全な民主主義」、[156]の伝統と自由主義、[157]と平等主義、[158]は 中等度の政治的イデオロギーを。[159]社会正義を強調することは、カナダの政治文化の際立った要素でした。[160] 平和、秩序、および良き政府は、暗黙の権利法案とともに、カナダ政府の創設原則です。[161] [162]
連邦レベルでは、カナダは、2人の比較的によって支配されてきた中道、「証券会社の政治」を実践パーティー[A]中央左に傾いカナダ自由党と中央右に傾いカナダ保守党を(またはその前任者を)。[169]歴史的に支配的な自由党はカナダの政治的スペクトルの中心に位置し[170]、保守党は右側に位置し、新民主党は左側を占めている。[171] [172] 極右と極左政治は、カナダ社会において決して目立った力ではありませんでした。[173] [174] 2019年の選挙では、5つの政党が議会に代表を選出しました。自由党は現在少数党政府を形成しています。公式野党である保守党;新民主党;ブロック・ケベコワ;とカナダ緑の党。[175]
カナダはあり議会制度をのコンテキスト内で立憲君主-theカナダの君主制は、執行の基盤であること立法、および司法の枝。[176] [177] [178]君臨君主は女王である エリザベスIIも15の他の君主され、連邦諸国とカナダの10件の州のそれぞれ。カナダの君主である人はイギリスの君主と同じですが、2つの機関は別々です。[179]君主は総督の代表を任命する、とのアドバイスの首相、カナダで彼女の連邦王室職務のほとんどを行いました。[180] [181]
君主制はカナダの権威の源ですが、実際にはその位置は主に象徴的です。[178] [182] [183]実際には、行政権の使用がによって指示された内閣の委員会王冠の大臣選出に責任下院現在では(首相によって選ばれたと向かったジャスティントルドー)、[184]政府の長。ただし、総督または君主は、特定の危機的状況では、大臣の助言なしに権力を行使する場合があります。[182]政府の安定を確保するために、総督は通常、庶民院で複数の信頼を得ることができる政党の現在のリーダーである個人を首相として任命します。[185]したがって、首相官邸(PMO)は、政府で最も強力な機関の1つであり、前述のほかに、総督、副知事、上院議員、連邦裁判所に加えて、議会の承認のためのほとんどの立法を開始し、国王による任命を選択します。裁判官、およびクラウン企業と政府機関の長。[182]通常、2番目に議席の多い党の党首は公式野党の指導者であり、政府を抑制し続けることを目的とした敵対的な議会制度の一部です。[186]
庶民院の338議員のそれぞれは、選挙区または乗馬で単純な複数によって選出されます。総選挙は、首相の助言に基づいて、または政府が下院での不信任決議を失った場合に、総督によって呼び出されなければなりません。[187] [188] 1982年憲法はあるがせいぜい5年は、選挙の間を通過しないことが必要カナダ選挙法が10月中に固定選挙日付で4年にこれを制限します。上院議員105名は、地域ごとに議席が割り当てられており、75歳まで務めます。[189]
カナダの連邦構造は、連邦政府と10の州の間で政府の責任を分担しています。州議会は一院制であり、庶民院と同様に議会制で運営されています。[183]カナダの3つの領土にも立法府がありますが、これらは主権ではなく、州よりも憲法上の責任が少ないです。[190]領土の立法府も、州の立法府とは構造的に異なる。[191]
カナダの銀行はある中央銀行の国の。また、財務大臣と技術革新、科学と産業大臣は、利用カナダ統計局の財務計画と経済政策の発展のために代理店。[192]カナダ銀行は、カナダの紙幣の形で通貨を発行する権限を与えられた唯一の機関です。[193]銀行はカナダの硬貨を発行しません。それらはロイヤルカナディアンミントによって発行されます。[194]
法
カナダの憲法は、国の最高法規である、と書かれたテキストと不文律の規則で構成されています。[195] 1867年の憲法法(1982年以前は英国北アメリカ法として知られていた)は、議会の判例と連邦政府と州政府の間の分割された権限に基づく統治を確認した。[196]ウェストミンスター憲章1931年は完全な自治権を認め、1982年憲法は英国とのすべての立法関係を終わらせ、憲法改正の公式とカナダの権利と自由の憲章を追加した。[197]憲章通常はどの政府も無効にできない基本的な権利と自由を保証します。ただし、条項にかかわらず、議会と州議会は憲章の特定のセクションを5年間無効にすることができます。[198]
カナダの司法は、法律の解釈において重要な役割を果たしており、憲法に違反する議会法を取り下げる権限を持っています。カナダの最高裁判所は、最高裁判所及び最終的な決定であるとにより、2017年12月18日以来主導してきたリヒャルト・ワーグナー、カナダのチーフ正義。[199]その9人のメンバーは、首相と法務大臣の助言に基づいて総督によって任命される。上訴および上訴レベルのすべての裁判官は、非政府の法的機関と協議した後に任命されます。連邦内閣はまた、州および準州の管轄区域の上級裁判所に裁判官を任命します。[200]
一般的な法律はケベック州、中を除いてどこでも勝つ民法優勢。[201] 刑法は連邦の責任であり、カナダ全土で統一されています。[202]刑事裁判所を含む法執行機関は、州および市の警察によって実施される公式の州の責任である。[203]しかしながら、ほとんどの農村地域と一部の都市地域では、警察の責任は連邦王立カナダ騎馬警察に委託されている。[204]
カナダ先住民法は、カナダの先住民グループに土地および伝統的な慣行に対する特定の憲法上認められた権利を提供します。[205]ヨーロッパ人と多くの先住民との関係を仲介するために、さまざまな条約と判例法が制定された。[206]最も注目すべきは、番号付きインディアン条約として知られる一連の11の条約が、1871年から1921年の間に先住民とカナダ国王の間で署名された。[207]これらの条約は、カナダ国王との間の協定である。相談し、対応する義務。[208]先住民法の役割とそれが支持する権利は、1982年憲法第35条によって再確認されました。[206]これらの権利には、インドの医療移転政策による医療などのサービスの提供、および課税の免除が含まれる場合があります。[209]
対外関係と軍事
カナダは、多国間解決を追求する傾向がある国際問題におけるその役割のミドルパワーとして認識されています。[210]国際平和維持と安全保障に基づくカナダの外交政策は、連立と国際機関を通じて、そして多くの連邦機関の活動を通じて実行されている。[211] [212] 20世紀におけるカナダの平和維持の役割は、その世界的なイメージにおいて主要な役割を果たしてきました。[213] [214]カナダ政府の対外援助政策の戦略は、ミレニアム開発目標を達成することに重点を置いていることを反映しています。 、また、外国の人道的危機に対応するための支援を提供します。[215]
カナダは国連の創設メンバーであり、世界貿易機関、G20、経済協力開発機構(OECD)のメンバーです。[210]カナダはまた、経済および文化問題のための他のさまざまな国際的および地域的組織およびフォーラムのメンバーでもあります。[216]カナダに加盟市民的及び政治的権利に関する国際規約1976年[217]カナダが参加しました米州機構1990年(OAS)を2000年にOAS総会およびホストされたアメリカの第三サミットを2001年に。[218]カナダは、アジア太平洋経済協力フォーラム(APEC)のメンバーシップを通じて、環太平洋経済との関係を拡大しようとしています。[219]
カナダと米国は、世界最長の無防備な国境を共有し、軍事作戦と演習に協力し、お互いの最大の貿易相手国です。[220] [221]それにもかかわらず、カナダは独立した外交政策を持っており、特にキューバとの完全な関係を維持し、2003年のイラク侵攻に公式に参加することを拒否している。[222]カナダはまた、イギリスとフランス、および他の元イギリスとフランスの植民地との歴史的なつながりを維持しており、カナダは英連邦およびフランコフォニー国際機関に加盟しています。。[223]カナダは、第二次世界大戦中のオランダ解放への貢献もあって、オランダと前向きな関係を築いていることで知られています。[94]
カナダの大英帝国と連邦への強い愛着は、第二次ボーア戦争、第一次世界大戦、第二次世界大戦における英国の軍事活動への主要な参加につながりました。[224]それ以来、カナダは多国間主義の擁護者であり、他の国々と協力して地球規模の問題を解決するための努力をしている。[225] [226]中は冷戦、カナダは国連軍に大きく貢献した朝鮮戦争はして設立された北米航空宇宙防衛司令ソ連からの潜在的な空中攻撃を防御するために、米国と協力して(NORAD)の。[227]
1956年の第二次中東戦争中、将来の首相レスターB.ピアソンは、1957年のノーベル平和賞を受賞した国連平和維持軍の発足を提案することで緊張を和らげました。[228]これは最初の国連平和維持活動であったため、ピアソンはしばしばこの概念の発明者として認められています。[229]カナダはそれ以来、1989年までのすべての国連平和維持活動を含む50以上の平和維持ミッションに参加し[87]、それ以来、旧ユーゴスラビアであるルワンダでの国際ミッションで軍隊を維持してきた。、および他の場所;カナダは、特に1993年のソマリア事件において、外国への関与について論争に直面することがありました。[230]
2001年、カナダは米国の安定化部隊と国連認可のNATO主導の国際治安支援部隊の一部としてアフガニスタンに軍隊を配備しました。[231] 2007年2月、カナダ、イタリア、英国、ノルウェー、ロシアは、発展途上国向けのワクチン開発を支援する15億ドルのプロジェクトへの共同コミットメントを発表し、他の国々にも参加を呼びかけました。[232] 2007年8月、カナダの北極圏における領土権の主張をした後にチャレンジしたロシアの水中の遠征に北極。カナダは1925年以来、その地域を主権領土と見なしてきました。[233] 2020年9月、カナダはCOVID-19ワクチングローバルアクセス(COVAX)プログラムは、すべての加盟国が潜在的なCOVID-19ワクチンに平等にアクセスできるようにし、低所得国が用量を確保できるようにすることを目的としています。[234]
国は約79,000人の現役職員と32,250人の予備職員からなる専門の志願軍を雇用しています。[235]統一されたカナダ軍(CF)は、カナダ陸軍、カナダ海軍、およびカナダ空軍で構成されています。 2013年、カナダの軍事費は合計で約190億カナダドル、つまり国内総生産(GDP)の約1パーセントに相当します。[236] [237]「強力、安全、従事」と呼ばれる2016年の防衛政策レビューに続き、カナダ政府は今後10年間で国防予算を70%引き上げると発表した。[238]カナダ軍は、国家造船調達戦略の一環として、タイプ26フリゲート艦の設計に基づいて88機の戦闘機と15機の海軍水上戦闘機を取得します。[239] [240]カナダの総軍事費は2027年までに327億カナダドルに達すると予想されている。 [241]カナダの軍隊は現在、イラク、ウクライナ、カリブ海を含む海外に3000人以上の要員を配置している。[242]
州と準州
カナダは、10の州と3つの地域で構成される連邦です。次に、これらは4つの主要な地域にグループ化できます:西部カナダ、中央カナダ、大西洋カナダ、および北カナダ(東カナダは中央カナダと大西洋カナダを一緒に指します)。[243]州は領土よりも自治権があり、医療、教育、福祉などの社会プログラムに責任を負っています。[244]一緒に、州は連邦政府より多くの収入を集めます。そして、それは世界の連邦の間でほとんどユニークな構造です。連邦政府は、その支出力を利用して、カナダ保健法などの州の地域で国の政策を開始することができます。州はこれらをオプトアウトできますが、実際にはオプトアウトすることはめったにありません。平準化の支払いは連邦政府によって行われ、サービスと課税の合理的に均一な基準がより豊かな州とより貧しい州の間で維持されることを保証します。[245]
カナダの州と準州の主な違いは、州は1867年の憲法法から権限と権限を受け取っているのに対し、領土政府はカナダ議会から権限を委任されていることです。[246] 1867年の憲法法から流れる権力は、連邦政府と州政府の間で分割され、独占的に行使される。[247]連邦政府と州の間の権力分立は憲法で定義されているため、いかなる変更も憲法改正を必要とする. The territories, being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[248]
Economy
Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy as of 2018[update], with a nominal GDP of approximately US$1.73 trillion.[249] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world,[250] and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[251][252] Canada has a mixed economy ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom,[253] and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[254] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[255] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[256]
In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached CA$1.5 trillion.[257] Canada's exports totalled over CA$585 billion, while its imported goods were worth over CA$607 billion, of which approximately CA$391 billion originated from the United States, CA$216 billion from non-U.S. sources.[257] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of CA$22 billion and a trade deficit in services of CA$25 billion.[257]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[258] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[259] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[260]

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[262] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[263] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[264] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment.[265] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[266] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[267]
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[260][268] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[269] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[270] The federal Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[271] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[272]
Science and technology

In 2018, Canada spent approximately CA$34.5 billion on domestic research and development, of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[273] As of 2020[update], the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[274] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[275] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[276] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[277]
Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery[278] and the polio vaccine[279] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[280] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[281][282] the development of the electron microscope,[283][284] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[285] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[282][286]
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[287] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[288] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[289] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[290] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[291]
Demographics

The 2016 Canadian Census enumerated a total population of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.[293][294] Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.[295] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.[296] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[297]
Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[298] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[299][300] The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration.[299][301] In 2019, a total of 341,180 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.[302] India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[303] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[304] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[305][306]
Canada's population density, at 3.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (9.6/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[307] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[308] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[309] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[292][308] An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia Lower Mainland and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[310]
The majority of Canadians (67.7 percent) live in family households, 28.2 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 4.1 percent.[311] 6.3 percent of households are multigenerational with 34.7 percent of young adults aged 20 to 34 living with their parents.[311] 69.0 percent of households own their dwellings with 58.6 percent of those homes having an ongoing mortgage.[312]
CMA | Province | Population | CMA | Province | Population | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Toronto | Ontario | 5,928,040 | London | Ontario | 494,069 | |
Montreal | Quebec | 4,098,927 | St. Catharines–Niagara | Ontario | 406,074 | |
Vancouver | British Columbia | 2,463,431 | Halifax | Nova Scotia | 403,390 | |
Calgary | Alberta | 1,392,609 | Oshawa | Ontario | 379,848 | |
Ottawa–Gatineau | Ontario–Quebec | 1,323,783 | Victoria | British Columbia | 367,770 | |
Edmonton | Alberta | 1,321,426 | Windsor | Ontario | 329,144 | |
Quebec | Quebec | 800,296 | Saskatoon | Saskatchewan | 295,095 | |
Winnipeg | Manitoba | 778,489 | Regina | Saskatchewan | 236,481 | |
Hamilton | Ontario | 747,545 | Sherbrooke | Quebec | 212,105 | |
Kitchener– Cambridge–Waterloo |
Ontario | 523,894 | St. John's | Newfoundland and Labrador | 205,955 |
Health
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[314][315] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984,[316] and is universal.[317] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[318] However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[319] This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[319] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[320][319]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a cost increase due to a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;[321] within twelve years it had risen to 42.4 years,[322] with a life expectancy of 81.1 years.[323] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[324] 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[325] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[325] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[326][327]
In 2017, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $242 billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[328] Canada's per-capita spending ranks as seventh on the list of countries by total health expenditure per capita in the OECD and above the average of 8.8 percent of GDP.[329] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s.[330] In 2017 Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[331] A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system third-to-last.[332] Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[332]
Education

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[333] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[334] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[335] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.[336] Canada has a large number of Universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[337] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[338] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[339] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[340]
According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[341] the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[341] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[342] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[343] As of 2014[update], 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[344]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[345] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[322] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled as of 2016. In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[346] The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[347][348] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[349][350]
Ethnicity
According to the 2016 Canadian Census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32 percent of the population),[b] followed by English (18.3 percent), Scottish (13.9 percent), French (13.6 percent), Irish (13.4 percent), German (9.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent), Italian (4.6 percent), First Nations (4.4 percent), Indian (4.0 percent), and Ukrainian (3.9 percent).[354] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people.[355] The Indigenous population in Canada is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an Indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-Indigenous visible minority.[356] In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (5.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent) and Black (3.5 percent).[356] Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[356] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[357] Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations.[358]
Languages

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 56 percent and 21 percent of Canadians, respectively.[360] As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850), Tagalog (431,385), Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).[360] Canada's federal government practises official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[361]
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[362] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[363] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[364] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[365]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[366] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[367] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[368] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[369]
Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[370] American Sign Language (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[371] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[372]
Religion
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[373] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[374] The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[375] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[376] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[377][378][379][380] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[381] but still believe in God.[382]
According to the 2011 National Household Survey, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of Protestants, who accounted for approximately 27 percent in a 2011 survey.[383][384] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1 percent of Canadians), followed by the Anglican Church of Canada (5.0 percent), and various Baptist sects (1.9 percent).[3] Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.[385][386] In 2011, 23.9 percent declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5 percent in 2001.[387] Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Canada, constituting 3.2 percent of its population. It is also the fastest growing religion in Canada.[388] 1.5 percent of the Canadian population is Hindu and 1.4 percent is Sikh.[3]
Culture
Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[389][390][391] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[392] Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[393] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[394][395] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[396] However, as a whole, Canada is, in theory, a cultural mosaic—a collection of regional ethnic subcultures.[397]
Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[398] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control—alongside legislation with a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination), LGBTQ rights, assisted euthanasia and cannabis use—are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[399][400][401] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[402][403]
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[404] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[405] Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[406] Many Canadian comedians have achieved international success such as in the American television and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world.[407]
Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[408] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[409]
Symbols

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Indigenous sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[411] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[412] Other prominent symbols include the national motto "A Mari Usque Ad Mare" ("From Sea to Sea"),[413] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[411] and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk.[414] Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.[414][415] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, the beaver on the nickel.[416] The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[417] The Queen's image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.[416]
Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[418] There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[419] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[420] Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life.[420] Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler) is Margaret Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic.[421] Numerous other Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,[422] including Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;[423] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who is perhaps best known for the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[424]
Visual arts

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven.[425] Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.[426] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.[427] Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[428] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[429]
Music
The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[430] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[431] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[432] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[433] Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest, The Bold Canadian, was written in 1812.[434] The national anthem of Canada, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony, and was officially adopted in 1980.[435] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[436]
Sports
The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,[437] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, basketball, baseball and football.[438] Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[439] Golf, soccer, baseball, tennis, skiing, badminton, volleyball, cycling, swimming, bowling, rugby union, canoeing, equestrian, squash and the study of martial arts are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[440]
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[441] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional sports in Canada include Canadian football, which is played in the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League lacrosse, and curling.[442]
Canada has participated in almost every Olympic Games since its Olympic debut in 1900,[443] and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics,[444] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[445] the 1994 Basketball World Championship,[446] the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup,[447] the 2010 Winter Olympics[448][449] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.[450] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting event hosted by the country.[451] The country is also scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup, alongside Mexico and the United States.[452]
See also
Notes
- ^ "Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[163][164] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology"[165][166][167][168]
- ^ All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[351] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.[352][353]
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