La Seconde Guerre mondiale

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La Seconde Guerre mondiale
in the
Dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre en partant du haut à gauche :
Date
  • 1er septembre 1939 - 2 septembre 1945 [a] (1939-09-01 – 1945-09-02)
  • (6 ans et 1 jour)
Emplacement
Résultat
Participants
Alliés Axe
Commandants et chefs
Principaux chefs alliés : Chefs d'axe principal :
Victimes et pertes
  • Militaires morts :
  • Plus de 16 000 000
  • Civils morts :
  • Plus de 45 000 000
  • Nombre total de morts :
  • Plus de 61 000 000
  • (1937-1945)
  • ... plus de détails
  • Militaires morts :
  • Plus de 8 000 000
  • Civils morts :
  • Plus de 4 000 000
  • Nombre total de morts :
  • Plus de 12 000 000
  • (1937-1945)
  • ... plus de détails

La Seconde Guerre mondiale ou la Seconde Guerre mondiale , souvent abrégée en WWII ou WW2 , était une guerre mondiale qui a duré de 1939 à 1945. Elle a impliqué la grande majorité des pays du monde, y compris toutes les grandes puissances, formant deux alliances militaires opposées : les Alliés et les puissances de l' Axe . Dans une guerre totale impliquant directement plus de 100 millions de personnes de plus de 30 pays, les principaux participants ont consacré toutes leurs capacités économiques, industrielles et scientifiques à l' effort de guerre., brouillant la distinction entre les ressources civiles et militaires. Les avions ont joué un rôle majeur dans le conflit, permettant le bombardement stratégique de centres de population et les deux seules utilisations d' armes nucléaires en temps de guerre à ce jour. La Seconde Guerre mondiale a été de loin le conflit le plus meurtrier de l'histoire de l'humanité ; elle a fait 70 à 85 millions de morts , dont une majorité de civils. Des dizaines de millions de personnes sont mortes à cause de génocides (y compris l'Holocauste ), de famine , de massacres et de maladies . À la suite de la défaite de l'Axe, l' Allemagne et le Japon ont été occupés, et des tribunaux pour crimes de guerre ont été dirigés contre les dirigeants allemands et japonais .

On considère généralement que la Seconde Guerre mondiale a commencé le 1er septembre 1939, lorsque l'Allemagne nazie , dirigée par Adolf Hitler , a envahi la Pologne . Le Royaume-Uni et la France ont ensuite déclaré la guerre à l'Allemagne le 3. En vertu du pacte Molotov-Ribbentrop d'août 1939, l'Allemagne et l' Union soviétique avaient divisé la Pologne et délimité leurs « sphères d'influence » à travers la Finlande , la Roumanie et les États baltes . De la fin 1939 au début 1941, dans une série de campagnes et de traités, l'Allemagne a conquis ou contrôlé une grande partie de l'Europe continentale et a formé l' alliance de l' Axe avec l' Italie et le Japon (avec d'autres pays plus tard). Après le début des campagnes en Afrique du Nord et en Afrique de l'Est , et la chute de la France au milieu des années 1940, la guerre s'est poursuivie principalement entre les puissances européennes de l'Axe et l' Empire britannique , avec la guerre dans les Balkans , la bataille aérienne d'Angleterre , le Blitz du Royaume-Uni et la bataille de l'Atlantique . Le 22 juin 1941, l'Allemagne a dirigé les puissances européennes de l'Axe enune invasion de l'Union soviétique , ouvrant le front de l'Est, le plus grand théâtre de guerre terrestre de l'histoire et piégeant les puissances de l'Axe, en particulier la Wehrmacht allemande , dans une guerre d'usure .

Le Japon, qui visait à dominer l'Asie et le Pacifique , était en guerre avec la République de Chine en 1937. En décembre 1941, le Japon attaqua les territoires américains et britanniques avec des offensives quasi simultanées contre l'Asie du Sud-Est et le Pacifique central , y compris une attaque contre le flotte américaine à Pearl Harbor qui a forcé les États-Unis à déclarer la guerre au Japon ; les puissances européennes de l'Axe ont déclaré la guerre aux États-Unis par solidarité. Le Japon a rapidement capturé une grande partie du Pacifique occidental, mais ses avances ont été arrêtées en 1942 après avoir perdu la bataille critique de Midway ; plus tard, l'Allemagne et l'Italie ont été vaincues en Afrique du Nord et à Stalingraden Union soviétique. Les revers clés de 1943, notamment une série de défaites allemandes sur le front de l'Est, les invasions alliées de la Sicile et du continent italien et les offensives alliées dans le Pacifique, coûtèrent aux puissances de l'Axe leur initiative et les forcèrent à une retraite stratégique sur tous les fronts. En 1944, les Alliés occidentaux envahissent la France occupée par les Allemands , tandis que l'Union soviétique récupère ses pertes territoriales et se tourne vers l'Allemagne et ses alliés. En 1944 et 1945, le Japon a subi des revers en Asie continentale, tandis que les Alliés ont paralysé la marine japonaise et capturé des îles clés du Pacifique occidental.

La guerre en Europe s'est terminée par la libération des territoires occupés par l'Allemagne et l' invasion de l'Allemagne par les Alliés occidentaux et l'Union soviétique, culminant avec la chute de Berlin aux mains des troupes soviétiques, le suicide d'Hitler et la reddition inconditionnelle allemande le 8 mai 1945 . Suite à la déclaration de Potsdam des Alliés le 26 juillet 1945 et au refus du Japon de se rendre à ses conditions, les États-Unis larguent les premières bombes atomiques sur les villes japonaises d' Hiroshima , le 6 août, et de Nagasaki , le 9 août. Face à un imminentl'invasion de l'archipel japonais , la possibilité de bombardements atomiques supplémentaires, et l'entrée en guerre soviétique contre le Japon et son invasion de la Mandchourie , le Japon a annoncé son intention de se rendre le 15 août, puis a signé le document de reddition le 2 septembre 1945 , cimentant le total victoire en Asie pour les Alliés.

La Seconde Guerre mondiale a changé l'alignement politique et la structure sociale du globe. L' Organisation des Nations Unies (ONU) a été créée pour favoriser la coopération internationale et prévenir de futurs conflits, et les grandes puissances victorieuses - la Chine, la France, l'Union soviétique, le Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis - sont devenues les membres permanents de son Conseil de sécurité. . L'Union soviétique et les États-Unis sont devenus des superpuissances rivales , ouvrant la voie à la guerre froide qui a duré près d'un demi-siècle . Dans le sillage de la dévastation européenne, l'influence de ses grandes puissances s'est affaiblie, déclenchant la décolonisation de l'Afrique et de l' Asie. La plupart des pays dont les industries avaient été endommagées se sont orientés vers la reprise et l'expansion économiques . L'intégration politique, en particulier en Europe , a commencé comme un effort pour prévenir de futures hostilités, mettre fin aux inimitiés d'avant-guerre et forger un sentiment d'identité commune.

Chronologie

La guerre en Europe est généralement considérée comme ayant commencé le 1er septembre 1939, [1] [2] en commençant par l' invasion allemande de la Pologne ; le Royaume-Uni et la France déclarent la guerre à l'Allemagne deux jours plus tard. Les dates du début de la guerre dans le Pacifique incluent le début de la deuxième guerre sino-japonaise le 7 juillet 1937, [3] [4] ou la première invasion japonaise de la Mandchourie , le 19 septembre 1931. [5] [6] [7]

D'autres suivent l'historien britannique AJP Taylor , qui a soutenu que la guerre sino-japonaise et la guerre en Europe et dans ses colonies se sont produites simultanément et que les deux guerres ont fusionné en 1941. Cet article utilise une datation conventionnelle. D'autres dates de départ parfois utilisées pour la Seconde Guerre mondiale incluent l' invasion italienne de l'Abyssinie le 3 octobre 1935. [8] L'historien britannique Antony Beevor considère le début de la Seconde Guerre  mondiale comme les batailles de Khalkhin Gol entre le Japon et les forces de la Mongolie et l' Union soviétique de mai à septembre 1939. [9] D'autres voient la guerre civile espagnolecomme le début ou le prélude de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. [10] [11]

La date exacte de la fin de la guerre n'est pas non plus universellement convenue. Il était généralement admis à l'époque que la guerre se terminait par l' armistice du 14 août 1945 ( VJ Day ), plutôt qu'avec la capitulation officielle du Japon le 2 septembre 1945, qui mit officiellement fin à la guerre en Asie . Un traité de paix entre le Japon et les Alliés a été signé en 1951. [12] Un traité de 1990 concernant l'avenir de l'Allemagne a permis la réunification de l'Allemagne de l'Est et de l'Ouest et a résolu la plupart des  problèmes d' après-guerre . [13] Aucun traité de paix formel entre le Japon et l'Union soviétique n'a jamais été signé. [14]Ils ont cependant signé la déclaration conjointe soviéto-japonaise de 1956 , qui a mis fin à l'état de guerre et rétabli des relations diplomatiques complètes entre les deux pays. [ citation nécessaire ]

Fond

L'Europe 

La Première Guerre mondiale avait radicalement modifié la carte politique de l' Europe, avec la défaite des puissances centrales – dont l' Autriche-Hongrie , l' Allemagne , la Bulgarie et l' Empire ottoman – et la prise du pouvoir bolchevique en 1917 en Russie , qui a conduit à la fondation de l' Union soviétique. Syndicat . Pendant ce temps, les Alliés victorieux de la Première Guerre mondiale , tels que la France, la Belgique , l'Italie, la Roumanie et la Grèce , ont gagné du territoire et de nouveaux États-nations ont été créés à partir dueffondrement de l'Autriche-Hongrie et des empires ottoman et russe .

L' Assemblée de la Société des Nations , tenue à Genève , Suisse , 1930

Pour éviter une future guerre mondiale, la Société des Nations a été créée lors de la Conférence de paix de Paris en 1919 . Les principaux objectifs de l'organisation étaient de prévenir les conflits armés par la sécurité collective , le désarmement militaire et naval et le règlement des différends internationaux par des négociations pacifiques et l'arbitrage.

Malgré une forte pacifiste sentiment après la Première Guerre mondiale  I , [15] irrédentiste et revanchardes nationalisme ont émergé dans plusieurs Etats européens dans la même période. Ces sentiments étaient particulièrement marqués en Allemagne en raison des pertes territoriales, coloniales et financières importantes imposées par le traité de Versailles . En vertu du traité, l'Allemagne a perdu environ 13% de son territoire d'origine et toutes ses possessions d'outre-mer , tandis que l'annexion allemande d'autres États a été interdite, des réparations ont été imposées et des limites ont été imposées à la taille et à la capacité des forces armées du pays . [16]

L'Empire allemand a été dissous lors de la Révolution allemande de 1918-1919 et un gouvernement démocratique, plus tard connu sous le nom de République de Weimar , a été créé. L'entre-deux-guerres a vu des conflits entre les partisans de la nouvelle république et les opposants purs et durs à droite et à gauche . L'Italie, en tant qu'alliée de l'Entente, avait réalisé quelques gains territoriaux d'après-guerre ; cependant, les nationalistes italiens étaient furieux que les promesses faites par le Royaume-Uni et la France pour garantir l'entrée italienne dans la guerre n'aient pas été tenues dans le règlement de paix. De 1922 à 1925, le mouvement fasciste dirigé par Benito Mussolini s'empare du pouvoir en Italie avec une politique nationaliste et totalitaire., et un programme de collaboration de classe qui a aboli la démocratie représentative, réprimé les forces socialistes, de gauche et libérales, et poursuivi une politique étrangère expansionniste agressive visant à faire de l'Italie une puissance mondiale et promettant la création d'un « nouvel empire romain ». [17]

Adolf Hitler lors d'un rassemblement politique nazi allemand à Nuremberg , août 1933

Adolf Hitler , après une tentative infructueuse de renverser le gouvernement allemand en 1923, devint finalement chancelier d'Allemagne en 1933 lorsque Paul Von Hindenburg et le Reichstag le nommèrent. Il a aboli la démocratie, épousant une révision radicale et raciale de l'ordre mondial , et a rapidement commencé une campagne massive de réarmement . [18] Pendant ce temps, la France, pour assurer son alliance, laissait à l'Italie les mains libres en Éthiopie , que l'Italie désirait comme possession coloniale. La situation s'est aggravée au début de 1935 lorsque le Territoire du bassin de la Sarrea été légalement réunie avec l'Allemagne, et Hitler a répudié le traité de Versailles, a accéléré son programme de réarmement et a introduit la conscription . [19]

Le Royaume-Uni, la France et l'Italie ont formé le Front de Stresa en avril 1935 afin de contenir l'Allemagne, étape clé vers la mondialisation militaire ; cependant, en juin, le Royaume-Uni a conclu un accord naval indépendant avec l'Allemagne, assouplissant les restrictions antérieures. L'Union soviétique, préoccupée par les objectifs de l'Allemagne de capturer de vastes régions de l'Europe de l'Est , a rédigé un traité d'assistance mutuelle avec la France. Avant d'entrer en vigueur, cependant, le pacte franco-soviétique a dû passer par la bureaucratie de la Société des Nations, ce qui l'a rendu essentiellement édenté. [20] Les États-Unis, préoccupés par les événements en Europe et en Asie, ont adopté le Neutrality Acten août de la même année. [21]

Hitler défia les traités de Versailles et de Locarno en remilitarisant la Rhénanie en mars 1936, rencontrant peu d'opposition en raison de la politique d' apaisement . [22] En octobre 1936, l'Allemagne et l'Italie ont formé l' Axe Rome-Berlin . Un mois plus tard, l'Allemagne et le Japon ont signé le pacte anti-Komintern , auquel l'Italie a adhéré l'année suivante. [23]

Asie

Le parti Kuomintang (KMT) en Chine a lancé une campagne d'unification contre les chefs de guerre régionaux et a unifié la Chine nominalement au milieu des années 1920, mais a rapidement été mêlé à une guerre civile contre ses anciens alliés du Parti communiste chinois [24] et les nouveaux chefs de guerre régionaux . En 1931, un empire du Japon de plus en plus militariste , qui cherchait depuis longtemps à influencer la Chine [25] comme première étape de ce que son gouvernement considérait comme le droit du pays à gouverner l'Asie , mit en scène l' incident de Moukden comme prétexte pour envahir la Mandchourie et établir leÉtat fantoche du Mandchoukouo . [26]

La Chine a fait appel à la Société des Nations pour arrêter l'invasion japonaise de la Mandchourie. Le Japon se retire de la Société des Nations après avoir été condamné pour son incursion en Mandchourie. Les deux nations livrent alors plusieurs batailles, à Shanghai , Rehe et Hebei , jusqu'à la signature de la trêve de Tanggu en 1933. Par la suite, les forces volontaires chinoises poursuivent la résistance aux agressions japonaises en Mandchourie , à Chahar et à Suiyuan . [27] Après l' incident de Xi'an de 1936 , le Kuomintang et les forces communistes se sont mis d'accord sur un cessez-le-feu pour présenter un front uni pour s'opposer au Japon.[28]

Événements d'avant-guerre

Invasion italienne de l'Éthiopie (1935)

Benito Mussolini inspectant les troupes pendant la guerre italo-éthiopienne , 1935

La deuxième guerre italo-éthiopienne était une brève guerre coloniale qui a commencé en octobre 1935 et s'est terminée en mai 1936. La guerre a commencé avec l'invasion de l' Empire éthiopien (également connu sous le nom d' Abyssinie ) par les forces armées du Royaume d'Italie ( Regno d 'Italia ), qui a été lancé depuis le Somaliland italien et l' Érythrée . [29] La guerre a entraîné l' occupation militaire de l'Éthiopie et son annexion à la colonie nouvellement créée de l' Afrique orientale italienne ( Africa Orientale Italiana, ou AOI); en outre, il a exposé la faiblesse de la Société des Nations en tant que force pour préserver la paix. L'Italie et l'Éthiopie étaient toutes deux des nations membres, mais la Ligue n'a pas fait grand-chose lorsque la première a clairement violé l'article X du Pacte de la Ligue . [30] Le Royaume-Uni et la France ont soutenu l'imposition de sanctions à l'Italie pour l'invasion, mais les sanctions n'ont pas été pleinement appliquées et n'ont pas réussi à mettre fin à l'invasion italienne. [31] L' Italie a par la suite abandonné ses objections à l'objectif de l'Allemagne d'absorber l' Autriche . [32]

Guerre civile espagnole (1936-1939)

Le bombardement de Guernica en 1937, pendant la guerre civile espagnole , a fait craindre à l'étranger en Europe que la prochaine guerre serait basée sur le bombardement de villes avec de très nombreuses victimes civiles.

Lorsque la guerre civile éclate en Espagne, Hitler et Mussolini apportent un soutien militaire aux rebelles nationalistes , dirigés par le général Francisco Franco . L'Italie a soutenu les nationalistes dans une plus grande mesure que les nazis : au total, Mussolini a envoyé en Espagne plus de 70 000 soldats au sol et 6 000 personnels d'aviation, ainsi qu'environ 720 avions. [33] L'Union soviétique a soutenu le gouvernement existant de la République espagnole . Plus de 30 000 volontaires étrangers, connus sous le nom de Brigades internationales , se sont également battus contre les nationalistes. L'Allemagne et l'Union soviétique ont utilisé cette guerre par procurationcomme une occasion de tester au combat leurs armes et tactiques les plus avancées. Les nationalistes ont gagné la guerre civile en avril 1939 ; Franco, maintenant dictateur, est resté officiellement neutre pendant la Seconde Guerre  mondiale mais a généralement favorisé l'Axe . [34] Sa plus grande collaboration avec l'Allemagne était l'envoi de volontaires pour combattre sur le front de l'Est . [35]

Invasion japonaise de la Chine (1937)

Soldats de l' armée impériale japonaise pendant la bataille de Shanghai , 1937

En juillet 1937, le Japon a capturé l'ancienne capitale impériale chinoise de Pékin après avoir été à l'origine de l' incident du pont Marco Polo , qui a abouti à la campagne japonaise pour envahir toute la Chine. [36] Les Soviétiques ont rapidement signé un pacte de non-agression avec la Chine pour apporter un soutien matériel , mettant ainsi fin à la coopération antérieure de la Chine avec l'Allemagne . De Septembre à Novembre, les Japonais ont attaqué Taiyuan , engagé l' armée du Kuomintang autour Xinkou , [37] et ont combattu les forces communistes en Pingxingguan . [38] [39] Généralissime Chiang Kai-shek déploya sa meilleure armée pour défendre Shanghai , mais après trois mois de combats, Shanghai tomba. Les Japonais continuent de repousser les forces chinoises, capturant la capitale Nankin en décembre 1937. Après la chute de Nankin, des dizaines ou des centaines de milliers de civils chinois et de combattants désarmés sont assassinés par les Japonais . [40] [41]

En mars 1938, les forces nationalistes chinoises remportent leur première grande victoire à Taierzhuang , mais la ville de Xuzhou est prise par les Japonais en mai. [42] En juin 1938, les forces chinoises ont bloqué l'avance japonaise en inondant le fleuve Jaune ; cette manœuvre a permis aux Chinois de préparer leurs défenses à Wuhan , mais la ville a été prise en octobre. [43] Les victoires militaires japonaises n'ont pas provoqué l'effondrement de la résistance chinoise que le Japon avait espéré atteindre ; au lieu de cela, le gouvernement chinois a déménagé à l'intérieur des terres à Chongqing et a continué la guerre. [44] [45]

Conflits frontaliers soviéto-japonais

Unité d'artillerie de l' Armée rouge pendant la bataille du lac Khasan , 1938

Du milieu à la fin des années 1930, les forces japonaises au Mandchoukouo ont eu des affrontements frontaliers sporadiques avec l'Union soviétique et la Mongolie . La doctrine japonaise du Hokushin-ron , qui mettait l'accent sur l'expansion du Japon vers le nord, était favorisée par l'armée impériale pendant cette période. Avec la défaite japonaise à Khalkin Gol en 1939, la deuxième guerre sino-japonaise en cours [46] et l'Allemagne nazie alliée à la recherche de la neutralité avec les Soviétiques, cette politique s'avérerait difficile à maintenir. Le Japon et l'Union soviétique ont finalement signé un pacte de neutralité en avril 1941, et le Japon a adopté la doctrine de Nanshin-ron, promu par la Marine, qui s'est concentré vers le sud, menant finalement à sa guerre avec les États-Unis et les Alliés occidentaux. [47] [48]

Occupations et accords européens

Chamberlain , Daladier , Hitler , Mussolini , et Ciano en photo juste avant la signature des accords de Munich , 29 septembre 1938

En Europe, l'Allemagne et l'Italie devenaient plus agressives. En mars 1938, l'Allemagne annexa l'Autriche , provoquant à nouveau peu de réactions de la part des autres puissances européennes. [49] Encouragé, Hitler a commencé à faire pression sur les revendications allemandes sur les Sudètes , une région de la Tchécoslovaquie avec une population allemande à prédominance ethnique . Bientôt, le Royaume-Uni et la France ont suivi la politique d'apaisement du Premier ministre britannique Neville Chamberlain et ont concédé ce territoire à l'Allemagne dans les accords de Munich , qui ont été conclus contre la volonté du gouvernement tchécoslovaque, en échange d'une promesse de ne plus exiger de territoire. [50]Peu de temps après, l'Allemagne et l'Italie ont forcé la Tchécoslovaquie à céder des territoires supplémentaires à la Hongrie, et la Pologne a annexé la région de Zaolzie en Tchécoslovaquie . [51]

Bien que toutes les demandes déclarées de l'Allemagne aient été satisfaites par l'accord, Hitler était furieux en privé que l'ingérence britannique l'ait empêché de s'emparer de toute la Tchécoslovaquie en une seule opération. Dans des discours ultérieurs, Hitler attaqua les « bellicistes » britanniques et juifs et, en janvier 1939 , ordonna secrètement un renforcement majeur de la marine allemande pour défier la suprématie navale britannique. En mars 1939, l' Allemagne a envahi le reste de la Tchécoslovaquie et l'a ensuite divisée en le protectorat allemand de Bohême et de Moravie et un État client pro-allemand , la République slovaque . [52] Hitler a également lancé un ultimatum à la Lituaniele 20 mars 1939, forçant la concession de la région de Klaipėda , anciennement le Memelland allemand . [53]

Le ministre allemand des Affaires étrangères Joachim von Ribbentrop (à droite) et le dirigeant soviétique Joseph Staline , après la signature du pacte Molotov-Ribbentrop , 23 août 1939

Fortement alarmés et avec Hitler faisant de nouvelles demandes sur la ville libre de Dantzig , le Royaume-Uni et la France ont garanti leur soutien à l'indépendance polonaise ; lorsque l' Italie conquit l'Albanie en avril 1939, la même garantie fut étendue aux royaumes de Roumanie et de Grèce . [54] Peu de temps après l' engagement franco - britannique envers la Pologne, l'Allemagne et l'Italie ont officialisé leur propre alliance avec le Pacte d'acier . [55] Hitler a accusé le Royaume-Uni et la Pologne d'essayer d'« encercler » l'Allemagne et a renoncé à l' Accord naval anglo-allemand et à laPacte de non-agression germano-polonais . [56]

La situation atteint une crise générale fin août alors que les troupes allemandes continuent de se mobiliser contre la frontière polonaise. Le 23 août, lorsque les négociations tripartites sur une alliance militaire entre la France, le Royaume-Uni et l'Union soviétique s'enlisent [57], l'Union soviétique signe un pacte de non-agression avec l'Allemagne. [58] Ce pacte avait un protocole secret qui définissait les « sphères d'influence » allemandes et soviétiques ( Pologne occidentale et Lituanie pour l'Allemagne ; Pologne orientale , Finlande, Estonie , Lettonie et Bessarabie pour l'Union soviétique), et soulevait la question du maintien du polonais indépendance. [59]Le pacte neutralisait la possibilité d'une opposition soviétique à une campagne contre la Pologne et assurait que l'Allemagne n'aurait pas à faire face à la perspective d'une guerre sur deux fronts, comme elle l'avait fait pendant la Première Guerre mondiale  . Immédiatement après cela, Hitler ordonna de poursuivre l'attaque contre Le 26 août, mais après avoir appris que le Royaume-Uni avait conclu un pacte formel d'assistance mutuelle avec la Pologne et que l'Italie maintiendrait sa neutralité, il a décidé de le reporter. [60]

En réponse aux demandes britanniques de négociations directes pour éviter la guerre, l'Allemagne a fait des demandes à la Pologne, qui n'ont servi que de prétexte pour aggraver les relations. [61] Le 29 août, Hitler a exigé qu'un plénipotentiaire polonais se rende immédiatement à Berlin pour négocier la remise de Dantzig et pour permettre un plébiscite dans le corridor polonais dans lequel la minorité allemande voterait sur la sécession. [61] Les Polonais ont refusé de se conformer aux exigences allemandes et dans la nuit du 30 au 31 août, lors d'une réunion orageuse avec l'ambassadeur britannique Nevile Henderson , Ribbentrop a déclaré que l'Allemagne considérait ses revendications comme rejetées. [62]

Cours de la guerre

La guerre éclate en Europe (1939-1940)

Des soldats de la Wehrmacht allemande démolissent le passage de la frontière polonaise , 1er septembre 1939

Le 1er septembre 1939, l'Allemagne envahit la Pologne après avoir organisé plusieurs incidents frontaliers sous faux pavillon comme prétexte pour lancer l'invasion. [63] La première attaque allemande de la guerre est venue contre les défenses polonaises à Westerplatte . [64] Le Royaume-Uni a répondu par un ultimatum à l'Allemagne de cesser les opérations militaires, et le 3 septembre, après que l'ultimatum a été ignoré, la Grande-Bretagne et la France ont déclaré la guerre à l'Allemagne, [65] suivies de l'Australie, de la Nouvelle-Zélande , de l'Afrique du Sud et du Canada. . L'alliance n'a fourni aucun soutien militaire direct à la Pologne, en dehors d'unsonde française prudente dans la Sarre . [66] Les Alliés occidentaux ont également commencé un blocus naval de l'Allemagne , qui visait à endommager l'économie du pays et l'effort de guerre. [67] L' Allemagne a répondu en ordonnant la guerre des sous-marins contre les marchands et les navires de guerre alliés, qui s'intensifiera plus tard dans la bataille de l'Atlantique . [68]

Soldats de l' armée polonaise lors de la défense de la Pologne , septembre 1939

Le 8 septembre, les troupes allemandes atteignent les faubourgs de Varsovie . La contre-offensive polonaise à l'ouest a stoppé l'avance allemande pendant plusieurs jours, mais elle a été débordée et encerclée par la Wehrmacht . Les restes de l'armée polonaise ont traversé Varsovie assiégée . Le 17 septembre 1939, après avoir signé un cessez-le-feu avec le Japon , l' Union soviétique envahit la Pologne orientale [69] sous prétexte que l'État polonais avait ostensiblement cessé d'exister. [70] Le 27 septembre, la garnison de Varsovie se rend aux Allemands et la dernière grande unité opérationnelle de l'armée polonaise se rend le 6  octobre. Malgré la défaite militaire, la Pologne n'a jamais capitulé ; au lieu de cela, il a formé le gouvernement polonais en exil et un appareil d'État clandestin est resté en Pologne occupée. [71] Une partie importante des militaires polonais évacués vers la Roumanie et les pays baltes ; beaucoup d'entre eux se sont ensuite battus contre l'Axe sur d'autres théâtres de la guerre. [72]

L'Allemagne a annexé l'ouest et occupé la partie centrale de la Pologne , et l'Union soviétique a annexé sa partie orientale ; de petites parts du territoire polonais ont été transférées à la Lituanie et à la Slovaquie . Le 6 octobre, Hitler a fait une ouverture publique de paix au Royaume-Uni et à la France, mais a déclaré que l'avenir de la Pologne devait être déterminé exclusivement par l'Allemagne et l'Union soviétique. La proposition a été rejetée, [62] et Hitler a ordonné une offensive immédiate contre la France, [73] qui a été reportée jusqu'au printemps 1940 en raison du mauvais temps. [74] [75] [76]

Nid de mitrailleuses finlandais visant les positions de l' Armée rouge soviétique pendant la guerre d'hiver , février 1940

L'Union soviétique a forcé les pays baltes - Estonie, Lettonie et Lituanie, qui étaient dans la « sphère d'influence » soviétique en vertu du pacte Molotov-Ribbentrop - à signer des « pactes d'assistance mutuelle » qui stipulaient le stationnement de troupes soviétiques dans ces pays. Peu de temps après, d'importants contingents militaires soviétiques y ont été déplacés. [77] [78] [79] La Finlande a refusé de signer un pacte similaire et a rejeté la cession d'une partie de son territoire à l'Union soviétique. L'Union soviétique a envahi la Finlande en novembre 1939 [80] et l'Union soviétique a été expulsée de la Société des Nations. [81] Malgré une supériorité numérique écrasante, le succès militaire soviétique était modeste, mais la guerre finno-soviétiquese termina en mars 1940 par des concessions finlandaises assez importantes . [82]

En juin 1940, l'Union soviétique annexa de force l' Estonie, la Lettonie et la Lituanie [78] et les régions roumaines de la Bessarabie, du nord de la Bucovine et du Hertza . Pendant ce temps, le rapprochement politique nazi-soviétique et la coopération économique [83] [84] se sont progressivement arrêtés [85] [86] et les deux États ont commencé les préparatifs de guerre. [87]

Europe occidentale (1940-1941)

L'avance allemande en Belgique et dans le nord de la France, du 10 mai au 4 juin 1940, a balayé la ligne Maginot (représentée en rouge foncé)

En avril 1940, l' Allemagne envahit le Danemark et la Norvège pour protéger les expéditions de minerai de fer de la Suède , que les Alliés tentaient de couper . [88] le Danemark a capitulé après quelques heures et la Norvège a été conquise dans les deux mois [89] malgré le soutien des Alliés . Le mécontentement britannique face à la campagne de Norvège a conduit à la nomination de Winston Churchill au poste de Premier ministre le 10  mai 1940. [90]

Le même jour, l'Allemagne lance une offensive contre la France . Pour contourner les fortes fortifications de la ligne Maginot à la frontière franco-allemande, l'Allemagne a dirigé son attaque contre les nations neutres de Belgique , des Pays-Bas et du Luxembourg . [91] Les Allemands ont effectué une manœuvre de flanc à travers la région des Ardennes , [92] qui a été perçue à tort par les Alliés comme une barrière naturelle impénétrable contre les véhicules blindés. [93] [94] En mettant en œuvre avec succès de nouvelles tactiques de blitzkrieg , la Wehrmachtavança rapidement vers la Manche et coupa les forces alliées en Belgique, piégeant le gros des armées alliées dans un chaudron à la frontière franco-belge près de Lille. Le Royaume-Uni a pu évacuer un nombre important de troupes alliées du continent début juin, tout en abandonnant la quasi-totalité de leur équipement. [95]

Le 10 juin, l' Italie envahit la France , déclarant la guerre à la France et au Royaume-Uni. [96] Les Allemands se tournèrent vers le sud contre l'armée française affaiblie et Paris leur tomba le 14  juin. Huit jours plus tard, la France signait un armistice avec l'Allemagne ; il a été divisé en allemand et zones occupation italienne , [97] et un inoccupé Etat croupion sous le régime de Vichy , qui, bien que officiellement neutre, a été généralement aligné avec l' Allemagne. La France a conservé sa flotte, que le Royaume-Uni a attaquée le 3  juillet pour tenter d'empêcher sa saisie par l'Allemagne. [98]

Londres vu de la Cathédrale St Paul après le Blitz allemand , 29 décembre 1940

La bataille aérienne d'Angleterre [99] a commencé début juillet avec les attaques de la Luftwaffe contre les navires et les ports . [100] Le Royaume-Uni a rejeté l'offre de paix d'Hitler, [101] et la campagne de supériorité aérienne allemande a commencé en août mais n'a pas réussi à vaincre le RAF Fighter Command , forçant le report indéfini de l' invasion allemande proposée de la Grande-Bretagne . L' offensive de bombardement stratégique allemande s'est intensifiée avec des attaques nocturnes sur Londres et d'autres villes du Blitz , mais n'a pas réussi à perturber de manière significative l'effort de guerre britannique [100]​ et a pris fin en grande partie en mai 1941. [102]

Utilisant les ports français nouvellement capturés, la marine allemande a connu du succès contre une Royal Navy trop étendue , utilisant des sous- marins contre les navires britanniques dans l'Atlantique . [103] La Home Fleet britannique a remporté une victoire significative le 27  mai 1941 en coulant le cuirassé allemand Bismarck . [104]

En novembre 1939, les États-Unis prennent des mesures pour aider la Chine et les Alliés occidentaux et modifient le Neutrality Act pour autoriser les achats « cash and carry » par les Alliés. [105] En 1940, à la suite de la prise de Paris par les Allemands, la taille de la marine des États-Unis a été considérablement augmentée . En septembre, les États-Unis acceptèrent en outre un échange de destroyers américains contre des bases britanniques . [106] Pourtant, une grande majorité du public américain a continué à s'opposer à toute intervention militaire directe dans le conflit jusqu'en 1941. [107]En décembre 1940, Roosevelt accusa Hitler de planifier la conquête du monde et écarta toute négociation comme inutile, appelant les États-Unis à devenir un « arsenal de démocratie » et promouvant des programmes d'aide de prêt-bail pour soutenir l'effort de guerre britannique. [101] Les États-Unis ont commencé une planification stratégique pour se préparer à une offensive à grande échelle contre l'Allemagne. [108]

À la fin de septembre 1940, le pacte tripartite unissait officiellement le Japon, l'Italie et l'Allemagne en tant que puissances de l' Axe . Le Pacte tripartite stipulait que tout pays, à l'exception de l'Union soviétique, qui attaquerait une puissance de l'Axe serait contraint d'entrer en guerre contre les trois. [109] L'Axe s'agrandit en novembre 1940 lorsque la Hongrie, la Slovaquie et la Roumanie se joignent. [110] la Roumanie et la Hongrie ont apporté plus tard des contributions majeures à la guerre de l'Axe contre l'Union soviétique, dans le cas de la Roumanie partiellement pour reconquérir le territoire cédé à l'Union soviétique . [111]

Méditerranée (1940-1941)

Des soldats des forces du Commonwealth britannique de la 9e division de l'armée australienne pendant le siège de Tobrouk ; Campagne d'Afrique du Nord , août 1941

Début juin 1940, la Regia Aeronautica italienne attaque et assiège Malte , possession britannique. De la fin de l'été au début de l'automne, l'Italie a conquis le Somaliland britannique et a fait une incursion dans l'Égypte tenue par les Britanniques . En octobre, l' Italie attaqua la Grèce , mais l'attaque fut repoussée avec de lourdes pertes italiennes ; la campagne s'est terminée en quelques mois avec des changements territoriaux mineurs. [112] L' Allemagne a commencé à préparer une invasion des Balkans pour aider l'Italie, pour empêcher les Britanniques d'y prendre pied, ce qui constituerait une menace potentielle pour les champs pétrolifères roumains, et pour lutter contre la domination britannique de la Méditerranée. [113]

En décembre 1940, les forces de l'Empire britannique commencèrent des contre-offensives contre les forces italiennes en Égypte et en Afrique orientale italienne . [114] Les offensives ont été très réussies; au début de février 1941, l'Italie avait perdu le contrôle de l'est de la Libye et un grand nombre de soldats italiens avaient été faits prisonniers. La marine italienne a également subi des défaites importantes, la Royal Navy mettant trois cuirassés italiens hors service au moyen d'une attaque de porte - avions à Tarente et neutralisant plusieurs autres navires de guerre lors de la bataille du cap Matapan . [115]

Panzer III allemand de l' Afrika Korps avançant à travers le désert d'Afrique du Nord, 1941

Défaites italiennes ont incité l' Allemagne à déployer une force expéditionnaire en Afrique du Nord et à la fin de Mars 1941, Rommel l » Afrika Korps a lancé une offensive qui refoula les forces du Commonwealth. [116] En moins d'un mois, les forces de l'Axe avancèrent vers l'ouest de l'Égypte et assiégèrent le port de Tobrouk . [117]

Fin mars 1941, la Bulgarie et la Yougoslavie signèrent le pacte tripartite ; cependant, le gouvernement yougoslave a été renversé deux jours plus tard par des nationalistes pro-britanniques. L'Allemagne a répondu par des invasions simultanées de la Yougoslavie et de la Grèce , commençant le 6 avril 1941; les deux nations ont été forcées de se rendre dans le mois. [118] L' invasion aéroportée de l'île grecque de Crète fin mai acheva la conquête allemande des Balkans. [119] Bien que la victoire de l'Axe ait été rapide, une guerre partisane acharnée et à grande échelle a éclaté par la suite contre l' occupation de la Yougoslavie par l' Axe, qui a continué jusqu'à la fin de la guerre. [120]

Au Moyen-Orient, en mai, les forces du Commonwealth ont réprimé un soulèvement en Irak qui avait été soutenu par des avions allemands à partir de bases situées dans la Syrie contrôlée par Vichy . [121] Entre juin et juillet, ils envahissent et occupent les possessions françaises de Syrie et du Liban , avec l'aide des Français libres . [122]

Attaque de l'Axe contre l'Union soviétique (1941)

Carte d'animation du théâtre européen de la Seconde Guerre mondiale , 1939-1945 - Rouge : Alliés occidentaux et Union soviétique après 1941 ; Vert : Union soviétique avant 1941 ; Bleu : Pouvoirs de l'Axe

La situation en Europe et en Asie étant relativement stable, l'Allemagne, le Japon et l'Union soviétique se préparèrent. Alors que les Soviétiques se méfient des tensions croissantes avec l'Allemagne et que les Japonais envisagent de profiter de la guerre européenne en s'emparant des possessions européennes riches en ressources en Asie du Sud-Est , les deux puissances ont signé le pacte de neutralité soviéto-japonais en avril 1941. [123] En revanche , les Allemands se préparaient régulièrement à une attaque contre l'Union soviétique, massant leurs forces à la frontière soviétique. [124]

Hitler croyait que le refus du Royaume-Uni de mettre fin à la guerre était fondé sur l'espoir que les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique entreraient tôt ou tard en guerre contre l'Allemagne. [125] Il a donc décidé d'essayer de renforcer les relations de l'Allemagne avec les Soviétiques ou à défaut de les attaquer et de les éliminer en tant que facteur. En novembre 1940, des négociations ont eu lieu pour déterminer si l'Union soviétique adhérerait au pacte tripartite. Les Soviétiques ont montré un certain intérêt mais ont demandé des concessions à la Finlande, la Bulgarie, la Turquie et le Japon que l'Allemagne considérait comme inacceptables. Le 18 décembre 1940, Hitler publia la directive de se préparer à une invasion de l'Union soviétique. [126]

Soldats allemands lors de l'invasion de l'Union soviétique par les puissances de l' Axe , 1941

Le 22 juin 1941, l'Allemagne, soutenue par l'Italie et la Roumanie, envahit l'Union soviétique lors de l' opération Barbarossa , l'Allemagne accusant les Soviétiques de comploter contre eux. Ils ont été rejoints peu après par la Finlande et la Hongrie. [127] Les cibles principales de cette offensive surprise [128] étaient la région de la Baltique , Moscou et l' Ukraine , dans le but ultime de mettre fin à la campagne de 1941 près de la ligne Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan , de la mer Caspienne à la mer Blanche . Les objectifs d'Hitler étaient d'éliminer l'Union soviétique en tant que puissance militaire, d'exterminer le communisme, de générer Lebensraum ("espace vital")[129] en dépossédant la population indigène [130] et en garantissant l'accès aux ressources stratégiques nécessaires pour vaincre les derniers rivaux de l'Allemagne. [131]

Bien que l' Armée rouge se préparât à des contre-offensives stratégiques avant la guerre [132], Barberousse força le commandement suprême soviétique à adopter une défense stratégique . Au cours de l'été, l'Axe a fait des gains importants sur le territoire soviétique, infligeant d'immenses pertes en personnel et en matériel. À la mi-août, cependant, le haut commandement de l' armée allemande a décidé de suspendre l'offensive d'un groupe d'armées considérablement épuisé Centre , et de détourner le 2e groupe Panzer pour renforcer les troupes avançant vers le centre de l'Ukraine et Léningrad. [133] L' offensive de Kieva été un succès écrasant, entraînant l'encerclement et l'élimination de quatre armées soviétiques, et a rendu possible une nouvelle avancée en Crimée et en Ukraine orientale industriellement développée (la première bataille de Kharkov ). [134]

Civils soviétiques laissant des maisons détruites après un bombardement allemand pendant la bataille de Leningrad , 10 décembre 1942

Le détournement des trois quarts des troupes de l'Axe et de la majorité de leurs forces aériennes de la France et de la Méditerranée centrale vers le front oriental [135] a incité le Royaume-Uni à reconsidérer sa grande stratégie . [136] En juillet, le Royaume-Uni et l'Union soviétique ont formé une alliance militaire contre l'Allemagne [137] et en août, le Royaume-Uni et les États-Unis ont publié conjointement la Charte de l' Atlantique , qui décrivait les objectifs britanniques et américains pour le monde d'après-guerre. [138] Fin août, les Britanniques et les Soviétiques ont envahi l'Iran neutre pour sécuriser le Corridor persan , les champs de pétrole de l'Iran, et devancer toute avancée de l'Axe à travers l'Iran vers les champs pétrolifères de Bakou ou l'Inde britannique. [139]

En octobre, les objectifs opérationnels de l' Axe en Ukraine et dans la région de la Baltique ont été atteints, seuls les sièges de Leningrad [140] et de Sébastopol se poursuivant. [141] Une offensive majeure contre Moscou est renouvelée ; après deux mois de combats acharnés dans des conditions météorologiques de plus en plus rudes, l'armée allemande a presque atteint la grande banlieue de Moscou, où les troupes épuisées [142] ont été contraintes de suspendre leur offensive. [143] D'importants gains territoriaux ont été réalisés par les forces de l'Axe, mais leur campagne n'a pas réussi à atteindre ses objectifs principaux : deux villes clés sont restées aux mains des Soviétiques, la capacité soviétique de résister was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.[144]

By early December, freshly mobilised reserves[145] allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops.[146] This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army,[147] allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west.[148]

War breaks out in the Pacific (1941)

Following the Japanese false flag Mukden Incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937-38 Nanjing Massacre, Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions, the Export Control Acts, which banned U.S. exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime.[101][149][150] During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, a strategically important Chinese city, but was repulsed by late September.[151] Despite several offensives by both sides, the war between China and Japan was stalemated by 1940. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940.[152]

Japanese soldiers entering Hong Kong, 8 December 1941

Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japan instituted harsh measures in occupied areas to reduce human and material resources for the communists.[153] The continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation.[154] In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during Battle of Shanggao.[155] In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.[156]

German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with some oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941.[157] In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, thus threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo.[158][159] At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to capitalise off the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.[160]

Since early 1941 the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. During these negotiations, Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate.[161] At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them.[162] Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".[162]

The USS Arizona was a total loss in the Japanese surprise air attack on the American Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Sunday 7 December 1941.

Frustrated at the lack of progress and feeling the pinch of the American–British–Dutch sanctions, Japan prepared for war. On 20 November, a new government under Hideki Tojo presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina.[161]​ The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers.[163] That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force;[164][165] the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.[166]

Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war.[167][168] To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset.[169] On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific.[170] These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, landings in Malaya,[170] Thailand and the Battle of Hong Kong.[171]

The Japanese invasion of Thailand led to Thailand's decision to ally itself with Japan and the other Japanese attacks led the United States, United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan.[172] Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States[173] in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.[127][174]

Axis advance stalls (1942–43)

US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British PM Winston Churchill seated at the Casablanca Conference, January 1943

On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four[175]—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter,[176] and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.[177]

During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets were also demanding a second front. The British, on the other hand, argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolster resistance forces. Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour without using large-scale armies.[178] Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.[179]

At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes.[180] Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland and to invade France in 1944.[181]

Pacific (1942–43)

Map of Japanese military advances through mid-1942

By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners.[182] Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile.[183] On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division.[184] Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea and Indian Ocean,[185] and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha.[186] These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, as well as overextended.[187]

In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea.[188] Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska.[189] In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups.[190][191] In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes in late May, were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.[192]

With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan chose to focus on a belated attempt to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua.[193] The Americans planned a counter-attack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.[194]

Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona.[195] Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops.[196] In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first, an offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942, went disastrously, forcing a retreat back to India by May 1943.[197] The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese front-lines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.[198]

Eastern Front (1942–43)

Red Army soldiers on the counterattack during the Battle of Stalingrad, February 1943

Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year.[199] In May the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov,[200] and then launched their main summer offensive against southern Russia in June 1942, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.[201]

By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets began their second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of German forces at Stalingrad,[202] and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously.[203] By early February 1943, the German Army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated,[204] and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.[205]

Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–43)

American 8th Air Force Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombing raid on the Focke-Wulf factory in Germany, 9 October 1943

Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast.[206] By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive, Operation Crusader, in North Africa, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made.[207] In North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February,[208] followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.[209] Concerns the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942.[210] An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein.[211] On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the disastrous Dieppe Raid,[212] demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.[213][page needed]

In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein[214] and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta.[215] A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya.[216] This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies.[217] Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France;[217] although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces.[217][218] The Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.[217][219]

In June 1943 the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "de-house" the civilian population.[220] The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.[221]

Allies gain momentum (1943–44)

After the Guadalcanal Campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians.[222] Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands.[223] By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.[224]

In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 4 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' deeply echeloned and well-constructed defences,[225] and for the first time in the war Hitler cancelled the operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success.[226] This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.[227]

Red Army troops in a counter-offensive on German positions at the Battle of Kursk, July 1943

On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority,[228] giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.[229][230] The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and by the Lower Dnieper Offensive.[231]

On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies.[232] Germany with the help of fascists responded by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas,[233] and creating a series of defensive lines.[234] German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic,[235] causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.[236]

German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign.[237] In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran.[238] The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory[239] and the military planning for the Burma campaign,[240] while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.[241]

Ruins of the Benedictine monastery, during the Battle of Monte Cassino, Italian Campaign, May 1944

From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while awaiting Allied relief.[242][243][244] In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio.[245]

On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, thereby ending the most lethal siege in history.[246] The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region.[247] By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops.[248] The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the expense of allowing several German divisions to retreat, on 4 June Rome was captured.[249]

The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against British positions in Assam, India,[250] and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima.[251] In May 1944, British forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July,[251] and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina.[252] The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields.[253] By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha.[254]

Allies close in (1944)

American troops approaching Omaha Beach during the invasion of Normandy on D-Day, 6 June 1944

On 6 June 1944 (known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure,[255] the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France.[256] These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle,[257] and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed.[258] After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Rur river in a large offensive. In Italy, Allied advance also slowed due to the last major German defensive line.[259]

German SS soldiers from the Dirlewanger Brigade, tasked with suppressing the Warsaw Uprising against Nazi occupation, August 1944

On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus ("Operation Bagration") that almost completely destroyed the German Army Group Centre.[260] Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviets formed the Polish Committee of National Liberation to control territory in Poland and combat the Polish Armia Krajowa; The Soviet Red Army remained in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula and watched passively as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Armia Krajowa.[261] The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans.[262] The Soviet Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.[263]

In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off.[264] By this point, the Communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Soviet Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945.[265] Unlike impressive Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions,[266] although Finland was forced to fight their former ally Germany.[267]

General Douglas MacArthur returns to the Philippines during the Battle of Leyte, 20 October 1944

By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River[268] while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road.[269] In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August.[270] Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November[271] and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.[272]

In the Pacific, US forces continued to press back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.[273]

Axis collapse, Allied victory (1944–45)

On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along with the French-German border to split the Western Allies, encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and capture their primary supply port at Antwerp to prompt a political settlement.[274] By January, the offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled.[274] In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Soviets and Poles attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.[275] On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.[276]

In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B.[277] In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and to retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton. In two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving several unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.

The German Reichstag after its capture by the Allied forces, 3 June 1945.

Soviet and Polish forces stormed and captured Berlin in late April. In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany,[278] Berlin garrison surrendered on 2 May.

Several changes in leadership occurred during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April.[279] Two days later, Hitler committed suicide in besieged Berlin, and he was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz.[280] Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May.[281] German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May.[282]

In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war.[283] Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.[284]

Atomic bombing of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.

In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May.[285] Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June.[286] At the same time, American submarines cut off Japanese imports, drastically reducing Japan's ability to supply its overseas forces.[287]

On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany,[288] and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction".[289] During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.[290]

The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms.[291] In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force.[292] These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms.[293] The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.[294]

Aftermath

Ruins of Warsaw in January 1945, after the deliberate destruction of the city by the occupying German forces

The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany. The former became a neutral state, non-aligned with any political bloc. The latter was divided into western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union. A denazification programme in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.[295]

Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland,[296] and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces,[297][298] as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon line,[299] from which 2 million Poles were expelled;[298][300] north-east Romania,[301][302] parts of eastern Finland,[303] and the three Baltic states were incorporated into the Soviet Union.[304][305]

Defendants at the Nuremberg trials, where the Allied forces prosecuted prominent members of the political, military, judicial and economic leadership of Nazi Germany for crimes against humanity

In an effort to maintain world peace,[306] the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945,[307] and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations.[308] The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council.[309] The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.[310]

Post-war border changes in Central Europe and creation of the Communist Eastern Bloc

Germany had been de facto divided, and two independent states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany),[311] were created within the borders of Allied and Soviet occupation zones. The rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence.[312] Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany,[313] Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Albania[314] became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the Soviet Union.[315]

Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact.[316] The long period of political tensions and military competition between them, the Cold War, would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world.[317]

In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.[318] Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.[319]

In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces were victorious and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949.[320] In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.[321][322]

The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much higher than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy.[323] The UK and US pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany in the years 1945–1948.[324] Because of international trade interdependencies this led to European economic stagnation and delayed European recovery for several years.[325][326]

Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in Western Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the Marshall Plan (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused.[327][328] The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle.[329] Italy also experienced an economic boom[330] and the French economy rebounded.[331] By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin,[332] and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country,[333] it continued in relative economic decline for decades.[334]

The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.[335] Japan recovered much later.[336] China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.[337]

Impact

Casualties and war crimes

World War II deaths

Estimates for the total number of casualties in the war vary, because many deaths went unrecorded.[338] Most suggest that some 60 million people died in the war, including about 20 million military personnel and 40 million civilians.[339][340][341] Many of the civilians died because of deliberate genocide, massacres, mass bombings, disease, and starvation.

The Soviet Union alone lost around 27 million people during the war,[342] including 8.7 million military and 19 million civilian deaths.[343] A quarter of the total people in the Soviet Union were wounded or killed.[344] Germany sustained 5.3 million military losses, mostly on the Eastern Front and during the final battles in Germany.[345]

An estimated 11[346] to 17 million[347] civilians died as a direct or as an indirect result of Hitler's racist policies, including mass killing of around 6 million Jews, along with Roma, homosexuals, at least 1.9 million ethnic Poles[348][349] and millions of other Slavs (including Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians), and other ethnic and minority groups.[350][347] Between 1941 and 1945, more than 200,000 ethnic Serbs, along with gypsies and Jews, were persecuted and murdered by the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše in Yugoslavia.[351] Concurrently, Muslims and Croats were persecuted and killed by Serb nationalist Chetniks,[352] with an estimated 50,000-68,000 victims (of which 41,000 were civilians).[353] Also, more than 100,000 Poles were massacred by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres, between 1943 and 1945.[354] At the same time, about 10,000–15,000 Ukrainians were killed by the Polish Home Army and other Polish units, in reprisal attacks.[355]

Chinese civilians being buried alive by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army, during the Nanking Massacre, December 1937

In Asia and the Pacific, between 3 million and more than 10 million civilians, mostly Chinese (estimated at 7.5 million[356]), were killed by the Japanese occupation forces.[357] The most infamous Japanese atrocity was the Nanking Massacre, in which fifty to three hundred thousand Chinese civilians were raped and murdered.[358] Mitsuyoshi Himeta reported that 2.7 million casualties occurred during the Sankō Sakusen. General Yasuji Okamura implemented the policy in Heipei and Shantung.[359]

Axis forces employed biological and chemical weapons. The Imperial Japanese Army used a variety of such weapons during its invasion and occupation of China (see Unit 731)[360][361] and in early conflicts against the Soviets.[362] Both the Germans and the Japanese tested such weapons against civilians,[363] and sometimes on prisoners of war.[364]

The Soviet Union was responsible for the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers,[365] and the imprisonment or execution of thousands of political prisoners by the NKVD, along with mass civilian deportations to Siberia, in the Baltic states and eastern Poland annexed by the Red Army.[366]

The mass bombing of cities in Europe and Asia has often been called a war crime, although no positive or specific customary international humanitarian law with respect to aerial warfare existed before or during World War II.[367] The USAAF firebombed a total of 67 Japanese cities, killing 393,000 civilians and destroying 65% of built-up areas.[368]

Genocide, concentration camps, and slave labour

Schutzstaffel (SS) female camp guards removing prisoners' bodies from lorries and carrying them to a mass grave, inside the German Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, 1945

Nazi Germany, under the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler, was responsible for the Holocaust (which killed approximately 6 million Jews) as well as for killing 2.7 million ethnic Poles[369] and 4 million others who were deemed "unworthy of life" (including the disabled and mentally ill, Soviet prisoners of war, Romani, homosexuals, Freemasons, and Jehovah's Witnesses) as part of a programme of deliberate extermination, in effect becoming a "genocidal state".[370] Soviet POWs were kept in especially unbearable conditions, and 3.6 million Soviet POWs out of 5.7 million died in Nazi camps during the war.[371][372] In addition to concentration camps, death camps were created in Nazi Germany to exterminate people on an industrial scale. Nazi Germany extensively used forced labourers; about 12 million Europeans from German-occupied countries were abducted and used as a slave work force in German industry, agriculture and war economy.[373]

The Soviet Gulag became a de facto system of deadly camps during 1942–43, when wartime privation and hunger caused numerous deaths of inmates,[374] including foreign citizens of Poland and other countries occupied in 1939–40 by the Soviet Union, as well as Axis POWs.[375] By the end of the war, most Soviet POWs liberated from Nazi camps and many repatriated civilians were detained in special filtration camps where they were subjected to NKVD evaluation, and 226,127 were sent to the Gulag as real or perceived Nazi collaborators.[376]

Prisoner identity photograph taken by the German SS of a Polish girl deported to Auschwitz. Approximately 230,000 children were held prisoner and used in forced labour and medical experiments.

Japanese prisoner-of-war camps, many of which were used as labour camps, also had high death rates. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East found the death rate of Western prisoners was 27 per cent (for American POWs, 37 per cent),[377] seven times that of POWs under the Germans and Italians.[378] While 37,583 prisoners from the UK, 28,500 from the Netherlands, and 14,473 from the United States were released after the surrender of Japan, the number of Chinese released was only 56.[379]

At least five million Chinese civilians from northern China and Manchukuo were enslaved between 1935 and 1941 by the East Asia Development Board, or Kōain, for work in mines and war industries. After 1942, the number reached 10 million.[380] In Java, between 4 and 10 million rōmusha (Japanese: "manual labourers"), were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia, and only 52,000 were repatriated to Java.[381]

Occupation

Polish civilians wearing blindfolds photographed just before their execution by German soldiers in Palmiry forest, 1940

In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the sizeable plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods.[382] Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.[383]

Soviet partisans hanged by the German army. The Russian Academy of Sciences reported in 1995 civilian victims in the Soviet Union at German hands totalled 13.7 million dead, twenty percent of the 68 million persons in the occupied Soviet Union.

In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders.[384] Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass executions.[385] Although resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, they did not significantly hamper German operations in either the East[386] or the West[387] until late 1943.

In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples.[388] Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them.[389] During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~5.5×105 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (~6.8×10^6 t), 76 per cent of its 1940 output rate.[389]

Home fronts and production

Allies to Axis GDP ratio between 1938 and 1945

In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); if colonies are included, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP.[390] In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this is reduced to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.[390]

The United States produced about two-thirds of all the munitions used by the Allies in WWII, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition.[391] Though the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies, as the war largely settled into one of attrition.[392] While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis is often attributed[by whom?] to the Allies having more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force,[393] Allied strategic bombing,[394] and Germany's late shift to a war economy[395] contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so.[396] To improve their production, Germany and Japan used millions of slave labourers;[397] Germany used about 12 million people, mostly from Eastern Europe,[373] while Japan used more than 18 million people in Far East Asia.[380][381]

Advances in technology and warfare

Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role was advanced considerably. Innovation included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel);[398] and of strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war).[399] Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and, though late introduction meant it had little impact, it led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.[400] Although guided missiles were being developed, they were not advanced enough to reliably target aircraft until some years after the war.

Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship in place of the battleship.[401][402][403] In the Atlantic, escort carriers proved to be a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap.[404] Carriers were also more economical than battleships because of the relatively low cost of aircraft[405] and their not requiring to be as heavily armoured.[406] Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War,[407] were anticipated by all sides to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics.[408][better source needed] Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh light, hedgehog, squid, and homing torpedoes proved victorious over the German submarines.[409]

A V-2 rocket launched from a fixed site in Peenemünde, 21 June 1943

Land warfare changed from the static front lines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry, to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon.[410] In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I,[411] and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower.[citation needed] At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications.[412] This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France.[410] Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used.[412] Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces,[413] and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I.[414] The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings.[414] The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard postwar infantry weapon for most armed forces.[415]

Nuclear Gadget being raised to the top of the detonation "shot tower", at Alamogordo Bombing Range; Trinity nuclear test, New Mexico, July 1945

Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well known being the German Enigma machine.[416] Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes[417] and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma benefiting from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war.[418] Another aspect of military intelligence was the use of deception, which the Allies used to great effect, such as in operations Mincemeat and Bodyguard.[417][419]

Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research and the development of artificial harbours and oil pipelines under the English Channel.[citation needed] Penicillin was first mass-produced and used during the war (see Stabilization and mass production of penicillin).[420]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While various other dates have been proposed as the date on which World War II began or ended, this is the time span most frequently cited.

Citations

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References

External links

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