Écosse
Écosse | |
|---|---|
| Devise: " In My Defens God Me Defend " ( Écossais ) [a] " Dans ma défense Dieu me défend " | |
| Hymne : Divers [b] | |
 Localisation de l'Ecosse (vert foncé) – en Europe (vert & gris foncé) | |
| Statut | Pays |
| Capitale | Édimbourg 55°57′11″N 3°11′20″W / 55.95306°N 3.18889°W |
| Ville la plus grande | Glasgow |
| Langues reconnues [c] | |
| Groupes ethniques (2011) | Liste des ethnies
|
| Religion (2011) | 53,8 % Christianisme —32,4 % Église d'Écosse —15,9 % Catholique romain —5,5 % Autre chrétien 36,7 % Sans religion 1,4 % Islam 0,3 % Hindouisme 0,2 % Bouddhisme 0,2 % Sikhisme 0,1 % Judaïsme 0,3 % Autre [7] [8] [9] |
| Démonyme(s) | |
| Gouvernement | Législature parlementaire déconcentrée au sein d'une monarchie constitutionnelle [e] |
• Monarque | Élisabeth II |
| Nicola Esturgeon | |
| John Swinney | |
| Parlement du Royaume-Uni | |
| • Secrétaire d'État | Alister Jack |
| • Chambre des communes | 59 députés (sur 650) |
| Corps législatif | Parlement écossais |
| Formation | |
• Établi | 9ème siècle ( traditionnellement 843) |
| 17 mars 1328 | |
| 3 octobre 1357 [10] | |
| 1er mai 1707 | |
| 19 novembre 1998 | |
| Zone | |
• Terre | 77 933 km 2 (30 090 milles carrés) [11] |
• L'eau (%) | 3,00% |
| Population | |
• Estimation 2019 |  5 463 300 [12] |
• Recensement de 2011 | 5 313 600 [13] |
• Densité | 67,5 / km 2 (174,8 / sq mi) |
| PIB (nominal) | Estimation 2019 |
• Le total | 166 milliards de livres (212 milliards de dollars) [14] |
• Par habitant | 30 560 £ (39 007 $) |
| IDH (2019) | 0,925 [15] très élevé · 4e |
| Monnaie | Livre sterling ( GBP ; £ ) |
| Fuseau horaire | UTC ( temps moyen de Greenwich ) |
• Été ( heure d'été ) | UTC +1 ( heure d'été britannique ) |
| Format de date | jj/mm/aaaa ( AD ) |
| Côté conduite | la gauche |
| Indicatif d'appel | +44 |
| Code ISO 3166 | GB-SCT |
| TLD Internet | .scot [f] |
| |
Écosse ( Écossais : Écosse , Gaélique écossais : Alba [ˈal̪ˠapə] ( écouter )
) est un pays qui fait partie du Royaume-Uni . Couvrant le tiers nord de l'île de Grande-Bretagne , [20] [21] [22] l' Écosse continentale a une frontière de 96 milles (154 km)avec l' Angleterre au sud-est et est par ailleurs entourée par l' océan Atlantique au nord et à l'ouest , la mer du Nord au nord-est et la mer d'Irlande au sud. Le pays contient également plus de 790 îles, [23] principalement dans les archipels des Hébrideset les îles du Nord . La majeure partie de la population, y compris la capitale Édimbourg , est concentrée dans la ceinture centrale – la plaine entre les Highlands écossais et les Southern Uplands – dans les basses terres écossaises .
L'Écosse est divisée en 32 subdivisions administratives ou autorités locales, appelées zones communales. [24] La ville de Glasgow est la plus grande région communale en termes de population, Highland étant la plus grande en termes de superficie. Un pouvoir d'autonomie limité, couvrant des questions telles que l'éducation, les services sociaux, les routes et les transports, est dévolu du gouvernement écossais à chaque subdivision. [24] L' Écosse est le deuxième plus grand pays du Royaume-Uni et représentait 8,3 % de la population en 2012. [25]
Le royaume d'Écosse a émergé en tant qu'État souverain indépendant au début du Moyen Âge et a continué d'exister jusqu'en 1707. Par héritage en 1603, Jacques VI d'Écosse est devenu roi d' Angleterre et d' Irlande , formant ainsi une union personnelle des trois royaumes . L'Écosse a ensuite conclu une union politique avec le Royaume d'Angleterre le 1er mai 1707 pour créer le nouveau Royaume de Grande-Bretagne . [26] [27] Le syndicat a également créé le Parlement de Grande-Bretagne , qui a succédé à la fois auParlement d'Écosse et Parlement d'Angleterre . En 1801, le royaume de Grande - Bretagne a conclu une union politique avec le Royaume d'Irlande pour créer le Royaume-Uni de Grande - Bretagne et d' Irlande (en 1922, l' État libre d' Irlande a fait sécession du Royaume-Uni, conduisant à ce dernier étant renommé officiellement le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord en 1927). [28]
En Écosse, la monarchie du Royaume-Uni a continué à utiliser une variété de styles, de titres et d'autres symboles royaux d'État spécifiques au Royaume d'Écosse pré-union. Le système juridique en Écosse est également resté séparé de ceux de l' Angleterre, du Pays de Galles et de l'Irlande du Nord ; L'Écosse constitue une juridiction distincte en droit public et en droit privé. [29] L'existence continue d' institutions juridiques, éducatives , religieuses et autres distinctes de celles du reste du Royaume-Uni ont toutes contribué à la continuation de la culture écossaise et de l'identité nationale depuis 1707.incorporation de l' union avec l'Angleterre. [30]
En 1999, un Parlement écossais a été rétabli, sous la forme d'une législature monocamérale décentralisée comprenant 129 membres , ayant autorité sur de nombreux domaines de la politique intérieure . [31] Le chef du gouvernement écossais est le premier ministre d'Écosse , qui est soutenu par le vice-premier ministre d'Écosse . [32] L' Écosse est représentée au Parlement du Royaume-Uni par 59 députés . L' Ecosse est également membre du Conseil anglo-irlandais , [33]l'envoi de cinq membres du Parlement écossais à l' Assemblée parlementaire britannique-irlandaise , [34] aussi bien que faisant partie du Comité ministériel conjoint , représenté par le premier ministre. [35]
Étymologie
L'Ecosse vient de Scoti , le nom latin des Gaels . Philip Freeman a spéculé sur la probabilité qu'un groupe de pillards adopte un nom d'une racine indo-européenne , * skot , citant le parallèle en grec skotos (σκότος), signifiant « ténèbres, ténèbres ». [36] Le mot latin tardif Scotia ("la terre des Gaels") a été initialement utilisé pour désigner l'Irlande, [37] et de même, au début du vieil anglais, l' Écosse a été utilisé pour l'Irlande. [38] Au XIe siècle au plus tard, Scotiaétait utilisé pour désigner l'Écosse (de langue gaélique) au nord de la rivière Forth , aux côtés de l' Albanie ou de l' Albany , tous deux dérivés du gaélique Alba . [39] L'utilisation des mots Écossais et Écosse pour englober tout ce qui est maintenant l'Écosse est devenue courante à la fin du Moyen Âge . [26]
Préhistoire
Des glaciations répétées, qui ont couvert toute la masse terrestre de l'Écosse moderne, ont détruit toute trace d'habitation humaine qui aurait pu exister avant la période mésolithique . On pense que les premiers groupes post-glaciaires de chasseurs-cueilleurs sont arrivés en Écosse il y a environ 12 800 ans, alors que la calotte glaciaire se retirait après la dernière glaciation . [40] À l'époque, l'Écosse était couverte de forêts, avait plus de tourbières et la principale forme de transport était l'eau. [41] : 9 Ces colons ont commencé à construire les premières maisons permanentes connues sur le sol écossais il y a environ 9 500 ans, et les premiers villages il y a environ 6 000 ans. Le village bien conservé de Skara Brae sur le continent deLes Orcades datent de cette période. Les habitations néolithiques , les sépultures et les sites rituels sont particulièrement courants et bien conservés dans les îles du Nord et les îles de l'Ouest , où le manque d'arbres a conduit à la construction de la plupart des structures en pierre locale. [42] La preuve de systèmes de croyance pré-chrétiens sophistiqués est démontrée par des sites tels que les pierres de Callanish sur Lewis et le Maes Howe sur les Orcades, qui ont été construits au troisième millénaire avant JC. [43] : 38
Histoire
Histoire ancienne
La première référence écrite à l' Ecosse était en 320 avant JC par marin grec Pythéas , qui a appelé la pointe nord de la Grande - Bretagne « Orcas », la source du nom des îles Orcades. [41] : 10 Au cours du premier millénaire av. [41] : 11
La conquête romaine de la Grande-Bretagne n'a jamais été achevée et la majeure partie de l'Écosse moderne n'a pas été placée sous contrôle politique romain. [44] La première incursion romaine en Écosse s'est produite en 79 après JC, quand Agricola a envahi l'Écosse; il a vaincu une armée calédonienne à la bataille de Mons Graupius en 83 après JC. [41] : 12 Après la victoire romaine, des forts romains ont été brièvement installés le long de la crête de Gask près de la ligne des Highlands , mais trois ans après la bataille, les armées romaines s'étaient retirées dans les hautes terres du sud . [45] Des vestiges de forts romains établis au 1er siècle ont été retrouvés aussi loin au nord que leMoray Firth . [44] Sous le règne de l' empereur romain Trajan ( r . 98–117 ), le contrôle romain était passé à la Grande-Bretagne au sud d'une ligne entre la rivière Tyne et le Solway Firth . [46] Le long de cette ligne, le successeur de Trajan Hadrian ( r . 117-138 ) a érigé le Mur d'Hadrien dans le nord de l'Angleterre [41] : 12 et le Limes Britannicus est devenu la frontière nord de l'Empire romain. [47] [48] L'influence romaine sur la partie sud du pays était considérable, et ils ont introduitChristianisme en Ecosse. [41] : 13-14 [43] : 38
Le mur d'Antonin a été construit à partir de 142 à l'ordre du successeur d'Hadrien Antoninus Pius ( r . 138-161 ), défendant la partie romaine de l'Écosse de la partie non administrée de l'île, au nord d'une ligne entre le Firth of Clyde et le Firth of En avant . L' invasion romaine réussie de la Calédonie 208-210 a été entreprise par les empereurs de la dynastie impériale des Sévères en réponse à la rupture du traité par les Calédoniens en 197, [44] mais la conquête permanente de l'ensemble de la Grande-Bretagne a été prévenue par la mort du empereur senior Septime Sévère ( r . 193-211) en campagne à Eboracum ( York ), et les Calédoniens se révoltent à nouveau en 210-211. [44] Les forts érigés par l' armée romaine de la campagne Severan ont été placés près de ceux établis par Agricola et ont été regroupés à l'embouchure des vallons dans les Highlands. [44]
Pour les historiens romains Tacite et Cassius Dio , les Highlands écossais et la région au nord de la rivière Forth s'appelaient Caledonia . [44] Selon Cassius Dio, les habitants de la Calédonie étaient les Calédoniens et les Maeatae . [44] D'autres auteurs anciens ont utilisé l'adjectif "calédonien" pour désigner n'importe où dans le nord ou l'intérieur de la Grande-Bretagne, mentionnant souvent les habitants et les animaux de la région, son climat froid, ses perles et une région remarquable de collines boisées ( latin : saltus ) qui le philosophe romain du IIe siècle après JC Ptolémée, dans sa Géographie , décrit comme étant au sud-ouest du Beauly Firth . [44] Le nom Caledonia trouve un écho dans les noms de lieux de Dunkeld , Rohallion et Schiehallion . [44]
La Grande Conspiration contre la domination romaine en Grande-Bretagne à la fin du IVe siècle, à laquelle les Écossais ont participé, a été défaite par le come Theodosius . La formation d'une nouvelle province, appelée Valentia après l'empereur régnant Valens ( r . 364-378 ), qui peut avoir été en Écosse, en a résulté. [46] Le gouvernement militaire romain a été complètement retiré de l'île au début du 5ème siècle, entraînant la colonisation anglo-saxonne de la Grande - Bretagne et l'immigration des Saxons vers le sud de l'Écosse et le reste de l'est de la Grande-Bretagne. [46]
Moyen Âge
À partir du VIe siècle, la région qui est maintenant l'Écosse a été divisée en trois régions : Pictland , un patchwork de petites seigneuries du centre de l'Écosse ; [41] : 25-26 le royaume anglo-saxon de Northumbria , qui avait conquis le sud-est de l'Écosse ; [41] : 18-20 et Dál Riata , fondée par des colons d'Irlande, apportant avec eux la langue et la culture gaéliques. [41] : 20 Ces sociétés étaient basées sur l'unité familiale et présentaient de fortes divisions de richesse, bien que la grande majorité soient pauvres et travaillaient à plein temps dans l'agriculture de subsistance . Les Pictes ont gardé des esclaves (principalement capturés pendant la guerre) jusqu'au IXe siècle.[41] : 26-27
L'influence gaélique sur le Pictland et la Northumbrie a été facilitée par le grand nombre d' ecclésiastiques parlant gaélique travaillant comme missionnaires. [41] : 23-24 Opérant au VIe siècle sur l'île d' Iona , saint Colomba fut l'un des missionnaires les plus anciens et les plus connus. [43] : 39 Les Vikings ont commencé à attaquer l'Écosse au huitième siècle. Bien que les pillards recherchaient des esclaves et des articles de luxe, leur principale motivation était d'acquérir des terres. Les plus anciennes colonies scandinaves se trouvaient dans le nord-ouest de l'Écosse, mais elles ont finalement conquis de nombreuses zones le long de la côte. Le vieux norrois a entièrement déplacé le gaélique dans les îles du Nord .[41] : 29-30
Au neuvième siècle, la menace scandinave a permis à un Gaël nommé Cináed mac Ailpín (Kenneth I) de prendre le pouvoir sur Pictland, établissant une dynastie royale à laquelle les monarques modernes retracent leur lignée et marquant le début de la fin de la culture picte. [41] : 31–32 [49] Le royaume de Cináed et de ses descendants, appelé Alba, était de caractère gaélique mais existait sur la même zone que Pictland. À la fin du Xe siècle, la langue picte s'est éteinte lorsque ses locuteurs sont passés au gaélique. [41] : 32-33 À partir d'une base dans l'est de l'Écosse au nord de la rivière Forth et au sud de la rivière Spey, le royaume s'est d'abord étendu vers le sud, dans les anciennes terres de Northumbrie, et vers le nord dans Moray . [41] : 34-35 Au tournant du millénaire, il y a eu une centralisation des terres agricoles et les premières villes ont commencé à s'établir. [41] : 36-37
Aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles, avec une grande partie de l'Écosse sous le contrôle d'un seul souverain et unie par la langue gaélique, un État-nation moderne a d' abord émergé, tout comme la conscience nationale écossaise . [50] : 38 La domination du gaélique est diminuée sous le règne de David I (1124-1153), durant lequel de nombreux colons anglophones s'installent en Écosse. [50] : 39 David I et ses successeurs ont centralisé le pouvoir royal [50] : 41-42 et ont uni l'Écosse continentale, capturant des régions telles que Moray, Galloway et Caithness , bien qu'il n'ait pas réussi à étendre son pouvoir sur leHébrides , qui avait été gouvernées par différents clans écossais après la mort de Somerled en 1164. [50] : 48-49 Le système de féodalité a été consolidée, avec les deux incomers anglo-normandes et chefs indigènes étant gaélique terres accordées en échange de service de la roi. [50] : 53-54 Les rois écossais ont rejeté les demandes anglaises de se soumettre ; en fait, l'Angleterre a envahi l'Écosse à plusieurs reprises pour empêcher l'expansion de l'Écosse dans le nord de l'Angleterre. [50] : 45
La mort d' Alexandre III en mars 1286 a brisé la ligne de succession des rois d'Écosse. Edward I d'Angleterre a arbitré entre divers demandeurs de la couronne écossaise. En échange de l'abandon de l'indépendance nominale de l'Écosse, John Balliol fut proclamé roi en 1292. [50] : 47 [51] En 1294, Balliol et d'autres seigneurs écossais refusèrent les demandes d'Edward de servir dans son armée contre les Français. L'Écosse et la France ont scellé un traité le 23 octobre 1295, connu sous le nom d' Auld Alliance . La guerre s'ensuivit et John fut renversé par Edward qui prit le contrôle personnel de l'Écosse. Andrew Moray et William Wallaceont d'abord émergé comme les principaux dirigeants de la résistance à la domination anglaise dans les guerres d'indépendance écossaise , [52] jusqu'à ce que Robert le Bruce soit couronné roi d'Écosse en 1306. [53] La victoire à la bataille de Bannockburn en 1314 a prouvé que les Écossais avaient regagné contrôle de leur royaume. En 1320, la première déclaration d'indépendance documentée au monde, la Déclaration d'Arbroath , obtint le soutien du pape Jean XXII , conduisant à la reconnaissance légale de la souveraineté écossaise par la Couronne anglaise. [54] : 70, 72
Une guerre civile entre la dynastie Bruce et leurs rivaux de longue date de la Maison Comyn et de la Maison Balliol dura jusqu'au milieu du XIVe siècle. Bien que la faction Bruce ait réussi, l' absence d'héritier de David II a permis à son demi-neveu Robert II , le Lord High Steward of Scotland , de monter sur le trône et d'établir la Maison des Stewart . [54] : 77 Les Stewarts ont régné sur l'Écosse pour le reste du Moyen Âge . Le pays qu'ils ont gouverné a connu une plus grande prospérité de la fin du 14ème siècle à travers la Renaissance écossaise à la Réforme ,[55] : 93 malgré les effets de la peste noire en 1349 [54] : 76 et la division croissante entre Highlands et Lowlands . [54] : 78 De multiples trêves réduisent la guerre à la frontière sud. [54] : 76, 83
Début de la période moderne
16e siècle
Le traité de paix perpétuelle a été signé en 1502 par Jacques IV d'Écosse et Henri VII d'Angleterre . James a épousé la fille d'Henry, Margaret Tudor . [56] James envahit l'Angleterre en soutien à la France selon les termes de l'Auld Alliance et devint le dernier monarque britannique à mourir au combat, à Flodden en 1513. [57] En 1560, le traité d'Édimbourg mit fin à la guerre anglo-saxonne. conflit français et reconnu la protestante Elizabeth I comme reine d'Angleterre. [55] : 112 Le Parlement d'Écosse s'est réuni et a immédiatement adopté la Confession écossaise, qui a marqué la rupture brutale de la Réforme écossaise avec l'autorité papale et l'enseignement catholique romain. [43] : 44 La catholique Marie, reine d'Écosse fut forcée d'abdiquer en 1567. [58]
17ème siècle
En 1603, Jacques VI, roi d'Écosse hérite des trônes du royaume d'Angleterre et du royaume d'Irlande dans l' Union des couronnes , et s'installe à Londres. [59] Le premier Union Jack a été conçu à la demande de James, pour être piloté en plus du St Andrew's Cross sur les navires écossais en mer. James VI et moi avions l'intention de créer un royaume unique de Grande-Bretagne, mais sa tentative fut contrecarrée par le Parlement d'Angleterre , qui appuya la proposition de démolition de rechercher à la place une union légale complète, proposition à laquelle le Parlement écossais ne donnerait pas son assentiment, obligeant le roi à retirer le plan. [60]
À l'exception d'une courte période sous le protectorat , l'Écosse est restée un État séparé au 17ème siècle, mais il y avait un conflit considérable entre la couronne et les Covenanters sur la forme de gouvernement de l' église . [61] : 124 L'armée a été renforcée, permettant l'imposition de l'autorité royale sur les clans des Highlands de l'ouest. Les statuts d'Iona de 1609 ont imposé l'intégration culturelle des chefs de clan des Hébrides. [62] : 37-40 En 1641 et de nouveau en 1643, le Parlement d'Écosse a cherché sans succès une union avec l'Angleterre qui était « fédérative » et non « englobée », dans laquelle l'Écosse conserverait un parlement séparé. [63]La question de l'union a divisé le parlement en 1648. [63]
Après l'exécution du roi écossais à Whitehall en 1649, au milieu des guerres des Trois Royaumes et de ses événements en Écosse , Oliver Cromwell , le Lord Protector victorieux , imposa la première constitution écrite des îles britanniques - l' instrument de gouvernement - à l'Écosse en 1652 dans le cadre du Commonwealth républicain d'Angleterre, d'Écosse et d'Irlande . [63] Le Parlement du Protectorat a été le premier parlement de Westminster à inclure des représentants de l'Écosse. La monarchie de la Maison des Stuart a été reprise avec la Restauration en Écosse en 1660.
Le Parlement d'Écosse a cherché une union commerciale avec l'Angleterre en 1664 ; la proposition a été rejetée en 1668. [63] En 1670, le Parlement d'Angleterre a rejeté une proposition d'union politique avec l'Écosse. [63] Les propositions anglaises dans le même sens ont été abandonnées en 1674 et en 1685. [63] La bataille d'Altimarlach en 1680 était la dernière bataille de clans importante livrée entre les clans des hautes terres . [64] Après la chute et la fuite en exil du roi catholique Stuart, Jacques VII et II la Glorieuse Révolution en Écosse et la Convention des États remplacent la Maison des Stuart en faveur de Guillaume IIIet Mary II qui était Mary Stuart. [61] : 142 Le Parlement écossais rejeta les propositions d'union politique en 1689. [63] Le jacobitisme , le soutien politique à la dynastie catholique des Stuart en exil, resta une menace pour la sécurité de l'État britannique sous la Maison protestante d'Orange et le succédant à la Maison de Hanovre jusqu'à la défaite du soulèvement jacobite de 1745 . [63]
À l'instar de pays comme la France, la Norvège, la Suède et la Finlande, l'Écosse a connu des famines au cours des années 1690. La mortalité, la réduction des accouchements et l'augmentation de l'émigration ont réduit la population de certaines régions du pays d'environ 10 à 15 %. [65] En 1698, la Compagnie d'Écosse a tenté un projet pour sécuriser une colonie commerciale sur l' Isthme de Panama . Presque tous les propriétaires terriens écossais qui avaient de l'argent à revendre auraient investi dans le projet Darien . [66] [67]
Après qu'une autre proposition de la Chambre des Lords anglaise a été rejetée en 1695 et qu'une autre motion des Lords a été rejetée à la Chambre des communes en 1700, le Parlement d'Écosse a de nouveau rejeté l'union en 1702. [63] L'échec du Darien Scheme a fait faillite les propriétaires terriens qui avaient investi, mais pas les bourgs. Néanmoins, la faillite des nobles, ainsi que la menace d'une invasion anglaise, ont joué un rôle de premier plan pour convaincre l'élite écossaise de soutenir une union avec l'Angleterre. [66] [67] Le 22 juillet 1706, le Traité d'Union a été convenu entre les représentants du Parlement écossais et du Parlement d'Angleterre . L'année suivante, des Actes d'Union jumeauxont été adoptés par les deux parlements pour créer le Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne avec effet au 1er mai 1707 [27] avec une opposition populaire et des émeutes antisyndicales à Édimbourg , Glasgow et ailleurs. [68] [69] Le Parlement nouvellement formé de Grande-Bretagne a rejeté les propositions du Parlement d'Irlande que le troisième royaume soit incorporé dans l'union. [63]
18ème siècle
Avec l'abolition des tarifs commerciaux avec l'Angleterre, le commerce s'est épanoui, en particulier avec l'Amérique coloniale . Les clippers appartenant aux Glasgow Tobacco Lords étaient les navires les plus rapides sur la route de la Virginie . Jusqu'à la guerre d'indépendance américaine en 1776, Glasgow était le premier port de tabac au monde, dominant le commerce mondial. [70] La disparité entre la richesse des classes marchandes des Lowlands écossais et les anciens clans des Highlands écossais a augmenté, amplifiant des siècles de division.
Les prétendants jacobites Stuart déposés étaient restés populaires dans les Highlands et dans le nord-est, en particulier parmi les non- presbytériens , y compris les catholiques romains et les protestants épiscopaliens . Cependant, deux soulèvements jacobites majeurs lancés en 1715 et 1745 n'ont pas réussi à retirer la maison de Hanovre du trône britannique. La menace du mouvement jacobite contre le Royaume-Uni et ses monarques a effectivement pris fin à la bataille de Culloden , la dernière bataille rangée de la Grande-Bretagne .
Les Lumières écossaises et la Révolution industrielle ont fait de l'Écosse une puissance intellectuelle, commerciale et industrielle [71] – à tel point que Voltaire a déclaré « Nous nous tournons vers l'Écosse pour toutes nos idées de civilisation ». [72] Avec la disparition du jacobitisme et l'avènement de l'Union, des milliers d'Écossais, principalement des Lowlanders, ont occupé de nombreux postes de pouvoir dans la politique, la fonction publique, l'armée et la marine, le commerce, l'économie, les entreprises coloniales et d'autres domaines à travers le Empire britannique naissant. L'historien Neil Davidson note « qu'après 1746, il y a eu un tout nouveau niveau de participation des Écossais à la vie politique, en particulier en dehors de l'Écosse ». Davidson déclare également que "loin d'être" périphérique "à l'économie britannique, l'Ecosse - ou plus précisément les Lowlands - en est le noyau". [73]
Dans les Highlands, les chefs de clan ont progressivement commencé à se considérer davantage comme des propriétaires terriens commerciaux que comme des chefs de leur peuple. Ces changements sociaux et économiques comprenaient la première phase des Highland Clearances et, finalement, la disparition du clan. [74] : 32-53, passim
19ème siècle
Le Scottish Reform Act 1832 a augmenté le nombre de députés écossais et a élargi le droit de vote pour inclure davantage de classes moyennes. [75] À partir du milieu du siècle, il y a eu de plus en plus d'appels à l'autonomie pour l'Écosse et le poste de secrétaire d'État pour l'Écosse a été relancé. [76] Vers la fin du siècle, les premiers ministres d'origine écossaise comprenaient William Gladstone , [77] et le comte de Rosebery . [78] À la fin du XIXe siècle, l'importance croissante des classes ouvrières a été marquée par le succès de Keir Hardie lors de l' élection partielle du Mid Lanarkshire en 1888., menant à la fondation du Parti travailliste écossais , qui fut absorbé par le Parti travailliste indépendant en 1895, avec Hardie comme premier chef. [79]
Glasgow est devenue l'une des plus grandes villes du monde et connue sous le nom de « deuxième ville de l'Empire » après Londres. [80] Après 1860, les chantiers navals de Clydeside se sont spécialisés dans les bateaux à vapeur en fer (après 1870, en acier), qui ont rapidement remplacé les voiliers en bois des flottes marchandes et des flottes de combat du monde. Il est devenu le centre de construction navale le plus important au monde. [81] Les développements industriels, alors qu'ils apportaient du travail et de la richesse, étaient si rapides que le logement, l'urbanisme et les services de santé publique ne les suivaient pas, et pendant un certain temps les conditions de vie dans certaines villes étaient notoirement mauvais, avec une surpopulation, une mortalité infantile élevée et des taux croissants de tuberculose. [82]
Alors que les Lumières écossaises sont traditionnellement considérées comme ayant pris fin vers la fin du XVIIIe siècle, [83] les contributions écossaises de manière disproportionnée à la science et aux lettres britanniques se sont poursuivies pendant encore 50 ans ou plus, grâce à des personnalités telles que les physiciens James Clerk Maxwell et Lord Kelvin , et les ingénieurs et inventeurs James Watt et William Murdoch , dont les travaux ont été essentiels aux développements technologiques de la révolution industrielle dans toute la Grande-Bretagne. [84] Dans la littérature, la figure la plus réussie du milieu du 19ème siècle était Walter Scott . Son premier ouvrage en prose, Waverleyen 1814, est souvent appelé le premier roman historique. [85] Il a lancé une carrière très réussie qui a probablement plus que tout autre aidé à définir et à populariser l'identité culturelle écossaise. [86] À la fin du XIXe siècle, un certain nombre d'auteurs d'origine écossaise ont acquis une réputation internationale, tels que Robert Louis Stevenson , Arthur Conan Doyle , JM Barrie et George MacDonald . [87] L' Écosse a également joué un rôle majeur dans le développement de l'art et de l'architecture. L' école de Glasgow , qui s'est développée à la fin du XIXe siècle et a prospéré au début du XXe siècle, a produit un mélange distinctif d'influences, notamment laLe renouveau celtique, le mouvement Arts and Crafts et le japonisme , qui ont trouvé la faveur dans le monde de l'art moderne d'Europe continentale et ont contribué à définir le style Art Nouveau . Les promoteurs comprenaient l'architecte et artiste Charles Rennie Mackintosh . [88]
Cette période a vu un processus de réhabilitation pour la culture des Highlands. Dans les années 1820, dans le cadre du renouveau romantique , le tartan et le kilt ont été adoptés par les membres de l'élite sociale, non seulement en Écosse, mais dans toute l'Europe, [89] [90] poussé par la popularité du cycle Ossian de Macpherson [91] [92] puis les romans Waverley de Walter Scott. [93]Cependant, les Highlands sont restés pauvres, la seule partie de la Grande-Bretagne continentale à continuer de connaître une famine récurrente, avec une gamme limitée de produits exportés hors de la région, une production industrielle négligeable, mais une croissance démographique continue qui a mis à l'épreuve l'agriculture de subsistance. Ces problèmes et le désir d'améliorer l'agriculture et les profits ont été les forces motrices des Highland Clearances en cours , au cours desquels une grande partie de la population des Highlands a été expulsée car les terres étaient fermées, principalement pour pouvoir être utilisées pour l'élevage de moutons. La première phase des autorisations a suivi les modèles de changement agricole dans toute la Grande-Bretagne. La deuxième phase a été entraînée par la surpopulation, la Highland Potato Famineet l'effondrement des industries qui s'étaient appuyées sur l'économie de guerre des guerres napoléoniennes. [94] La population de l'Écosse a augmenté régulièrement au XIXe siècle, passant de 1 608 000 au recensement de 1801 à 2 889 000 en 1851 et à 4 472 000 en 1901. [95] Même avec le développement de l'industrie, il n'y avait pas assez de bons emplois. En conséquence, au cours de la période 1841-1931, environ 2 millions d'Écossais ont migré vers l'Amérique du Nord et l'Australie, et 750 000 autres Écossais ont déménagé en Angleterre. [96]
Après de longues années de lutte dans le Kirk, en 1834, les évangéliques ont pris le contrôle de l' Assemblée générale et ont adopté la loi sur le veto, qui a permis aux congrégations de rejeter les présentations « intrusives » indésirables aux vivants par les patrons. Le « conflit de dix ans » de querelles juridiques et politiques qui a suivi s'est soldé par une défaite pour les non-intrusionnistes dans les tribunaux civils. Le résultat fut un schisme de l'église par certains des non-intrusionnistes dirigés par le Dr Thomas Chalmers , connu sous le nom de Grande Perturbation de 1843 . Environ un tiers du clergé, principalement du Nord et des Highlands, formait l' Église libre séparée d'Écosse . [97]À la fin du XIXe siècle, les divisions croissantes entre les calvinistes fondamentalistes et les théologiens libéraux ont entraîné une nouvelle scission de l'Église libre lorsque les calvinistes rigides se sont séparés pour former l' Église presbytérienne libre en 1893. [98] L'émancipation catholique en 1829 et l'afflux de grands nombres d'immigrants irlandais, en particulier après les années de famine de la fin des années 1840, principalement vers les centres de plaine en pleine croissance comme Glasgow, a conduit à une transformation dans les fortunes du catholicisme. En 1878, malgré l'opposition, une hiérarchie ecclésiastique catholique romaine a été restaurée dans le pays et le catholicisme est devenu une dénomination importante en Écosse. [98]
L'industrialisation, l'urbanisation et la Perturbation de 1843 ont miné la tradition des écoles paroissiales. À partir de 1830, l'État commença à financer les bâtiments par des subventions ; puis, à partir de 1846, elle finançait les écoles par parrainage direct ; et en 1872, l'Écosse est passée à un système comme celui d'Angleterre d'écoles en grande partie gratuites financées par l'État, gérées par des commissions scolaires locales. [99] L' Université historique de Glasgow est devenue un leader dans l'enseignement supérieur britannique en répondant aux besoins éducatifs des jeunes des classes urbaines et commerciales, par opposition à la classe supérieure. [100] L'Université de St Andrewspionnier de l'admission des femmes dans les universités écossaises. À partir de 1892, les universités écossaises pouvaient admettre et obtenir un diplôme pour les femmes et le nombre de femmes dans les universités écossaises augmentait régulièrement jusqu'au début du 20e siècle. [101]
Causées par l'avènement de la réfrigération et des importations d'agneau, de mouton et de laine d'outre-mer, les années 1870 ont entraîné un effondrement des prix du mouton et un arrêt brutal du précédent boom de l'élevage ovin. [102] Les prix des terrains ont également chuté par la suite et ont accéléré le processus de la soi-disant « balmoralisation » de l'Écosse, une époque de la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle qui a vu une augmentation du tourisme et l'établissement de grands domaines dédiés aux champs. des sports comme la chasse au cerf et le tir au tétras , en particulier dans les Highlands écossais. [102] [103] Le processus a été nommé d'après la succession de Balmoral, acheté par la reine Victoria en 1848, qui a alimenté la romance des hautes terres écossaises et a initié un afflux de nouveaux riches acquérant des domaines similaires au cours des décennies suivantes. [102] [103] À la fin du XIXe siècle, seulement 118 personnes possédaient la moitié de l'Écosse, avec près de 60 pour cent de l'ensemble du pays faisant partie des domaines de tir. [102] Alors que leur importance relative a quelque peu diminué en raison de l'évolution des intérêts récréatifs tout au long du 20ème siècle, la chasse aux cerfs et le tir au tétras restent d'une importance primordiale sur de nombreux domaines privés en Écosse. [102] [104]
20ième siècle
L'Écosse a joué un rôle majeur dans l' effort britannique pendant la Première Guerre mondiale . Elle fournissait surtout de la main-d'œuvre, des navires, des machines, du poisson et de l'argent. [105] Avec une population de 4,8 millions en 1911, l'Écosse a envoyé plus d'un demi-million d'hommes à la guerre, dont plus d'un quart sont morts au combat ou de maladie, et 150 000 ont été grièvement blessés. [106] Le maréchal Sir Douglas Haig était le commandant britannique sur le front occidental.
La guerre a vu l'émergence d'un mouvement radical appelé « Red Clydeside » dirigé par des syndicalistes militants. Autrefois bastion libéral , les districts industriels sont passés aux travaillistes en 1922, avec une base parmi les districts ouvriers catholiques irlandais . Les femmes ont été particulièrement actives dans la construction d'une solidarité de quartier sur les questions de logement. Cependant, les « Rouges » opéraient au sein du Parti travailliste et avaient peu d'influence au Parlement et l'ambiance est passée au désespoir passif à la fin des années 1920. [107]
L'industrie de la construction navale s'est développée d'un tiers et s'attendait à une nouvelle prospérité, mais au lieu de cela, une grave dépression a frappé l'économie en 1922 et elle ne s'est complètement rétablie qu'en 1939. Les années d'entre-deux-guerres ont été marquées par une stagnation économique dans les zones rurales et urbaines et un chômage élevé. [108]En effet, la guerre a entraîné de profondes dislocations sociales, culturelles, économiques et politiques. Les Écossais réfléchis ont réfléchi à leur déclin, car les principaux indicateurs sociaux tels que la mauvaise santé, le mauvais logement et le chômage de masse à long terme, indiquaient au mieux une stagnation sociale et économique terminale, voire une spirale descendante. Le service à l'étranger au nom de l'Empire perd de son attrait pour les jeunes ambitieux, qui quittent définitivement l'Écosse. La forte dépendance vis-à-vis de l'industrie lourde et de l'exploitation minière obsolètes était un problème central, et personne n'offrait de solutions viables. Le désespoir reflétait ce que Finlay (1994) décrit comme un sentiment de désespoir généralisé qui a préparé les chefs d'entreprise et politiques locaux à accepter une nouvelle orthodoxie de planification économique gouvernementale centralisée lorsqu'elle est arrivée pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale .[109]
Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, l'Écosse a été la cible de l'Allemagne nazie en grande partie à cause de ses usines, ses chantiers navals et ses mines de charbon. [110] Des villes telles que Glasgow et Édimbourg ont été ciblées par les bombardiers allemands, tout comme les petites villes situées principalement dans la ceinture centrale du pays. [110] Peut-être le raid aérien le plus important en Écosse était le Clydebank Blitz de mars 1941, qui avait pour but de détruire la construction navale dans la région. [111] 528 personnes ont été tuées et 4 000 maisons totalement détruites. [111]
L'épisode de guerre le plus inhabituel d'Écosse s'est peut-être produit en 1941 lorsque Rudolf Hess s'est envolé pour le Renfrewshire, dans l'intention peut-être de négocier un accord de paix par l'intermédiaire du duc de Hamilton . [112] Avant son départ d'Allemagne, Hess avait remis à son adjudant, Karlheinz Pintsch , une lettre adressée à Hitler qui détaillait ses intentions d'ouvrir des négociations de paix avec les Britanniques. Pintsch a remis la lettre à Hitler au Berghof vers midi le 11 mai. [113] Albert Speer a dit plus tard qu'Hitler a décrit le départ de Hess comme l'un des pires coups personnels de sa vie, car il le considérait comme une trahison personnelle. [114] Hitler craignait que ses alliés, l'Italie et le Japon, perçoivent l'acte de Hess comme une tentative d'Hitler d'ouvrir secrètement des négociations de paix avec les Britanniques.
Comme pendant la Première Guerre mondiale, Scapa Flow dans les Orcades a servi de base importante pour la Royal Navy . Les attaques sur Scapa Flow et Rosyth ont donné aux chasseurs de la RAF leurs premiers succès en abattant des bombardiers dans le Firth of Forth et East Lothian . [115] Les chantiers navals et les usines d'ingénierie lourde de Glasgow et de Clydeside ont joué un rôle clé dans l'effort de guerre et ont subi des attaques de la Luftwaffe , endurant de grandes destructions et des pertes en vies humaines. [116] Comme les voyages transatlantiques impliquaient de négocier le nord-ouest de la Grande-Bretagne, l'Écosse a joué un rôle clé dans la bataille de l'Atlantique Nord. [117] ShetlandLa proximité relative de la Norvège occupée a donné lieu au bus Shetland par lequel les bateaux de pêche ont aidé les Norvégiens à fuir les nazis , et à des expéditions à travers la mer du Nord pour aider la résistance. [118]
L'industrie écossaise est sortie du marasme de la dépression par une expansion spectaculaire de son activité industrielle, absorbant également des hommes au chômage et de nombreuses femmes. Les chantiers navals étaient le centre d'une plus grande activité, mais de nombreuses petites industries produisaient les machines nécessaires aux bombardiers, chars et navires de guerre britanniques. [116] L'agriculture a prospéré, de même que tous les secteurs, à l'exception de l'extraction du charbon, qui exploitait des mines presque épuisées. Les salaires réels, corrigés de l'inflation, ont augmenté de 25 % et le chômage a temporairement disparu. L'augmentation des revenus et la distribution plus équitable de la nourriture, obtenue grâce à un système de rationnement strict, ont considérablement amélioré la santé et la nutrition.
Après 1945, la situation économique de l'Écosse s'est détériorée en raison de la concurrence étrangère, de l'inefficacité de l'industrie et des conflits du travail. [119] Ce n'est qu'au cours des dernières décennies que le pays a connu une sorte de renaissance culturelle et économique. Les facteurs économiques contribuant à cette reprise comprenaient une industrie des services financiers renaissante, la fabrication de produits électroniques (voir Silicon Glen ), [120] et l' industrie pétrolière et gazière de la mer du Nord . [121] L'introduction en 1989 par le gouvernement de Margaret Thatcher de la Community Charge (largement connue sous le nom de Poll Tax) un an avant le reste de la Grande-Bretagne, [122]contribué à un mouvement croissant pour le contrôle écossais sur les affaires intérieures. [123] À la suite d'un référendum sur les propositions de dévolution en 1997 , le Scotland Act 1998 [124] a été adopté par le Parlement britannique, qui a établi un Parlement écossais décentralisé et un gouvernement écossais responsable de la plupart des lois spécifiques à l'Écosse. [125] Le Parlement écossais a été réuni à nouveau à Édimbourg le 4 juillet 1999. [126] Le premier à occuper le poste de premier ministre d'Écosse était Donald Dewar , qui a servi jusqu'à sa mort subite en 2000. [127]
21e siècle
Le bâtiment du Parlement écossais à Holyrood a ouvert ses portes en octobre 2004 après de longs retards de construction et un dépassement du budget. [128] La forme de représentation proportionnelle du Parlement écossais (le système de membres supplémentaires ) n'a fait en sorte qu'aucun parti n'ait une majorité globale pour les trois premières élections parlementaires écossaises. Cependant, le Parti national écossais pro- indépendance dirigé par Alex Salmond a obtenu une majorité globale aux élections de 2011 , remportant 69 des 129 sièges disponibles. [129] Le succès du SNP à obtenir la majorité au Parlement écossais a ouvert la voie auRéférendum de septembre 2014 sur l'indépendance de l'Écosse . La majorité a voté contre la proposition, avec 55% votant non à l'indépendance. [130] Davantage de pouvoirs, notamment en matière fiscale, ont été dévolus au Parlement écossais après le référendum, à la suite de pourparlers multipartites au sein de la Commission Smith .
Géographie et histoire naturelle
L'Écosse continentale comprend le tiers nord de la masse terrestre de l'île de Grande-Bretagne, qui se situe au large de la côte nord-ouest de l'Europe continentale . La superficie totale est de 78 772 km 2 (30 414 milles carrés), [131] comparable à la taille de la République tchèque. La seule frontière terrestre de l'Écosse est avec l'Angleterre et s'étend sur 96 kilomètres (60 mi) entre le bassin de la rivière Tweed sur la côte est et le Solway Firth à l'ouest. L'océan Atlantique borde la côte ouest et la mer du Nord est à l'est. L'île d'Irlande se trouve à seulement 21 kilomètres (13 mi) de la péninsule sud-ouest de Kintyre ; [132]La Norvège est à 305 kilomètres (190 mi) à l'est et les îles Féroé à 270 kilomètres (168 mi) au nord.
L'étendue territoriale de l'Écosse est généralement celle établie par le Traité d'York de 1237 entre l'Écosse et le Royaume d'Angleterre [133] et le Traité de Perth de 1266 entre l'Écosse et la Norvège. [27] Les exceptions importantes incluent l' île de Man , qui ayant été perdue en Angleterre au 14ème siècle est maintenant une dépendance de couronne en dehors du Royaume-Uni ; les groupes d' îles des Orcades et des Shetland , acquis à la Norvège en 1472 ; [131] et Berwick-upon-Tweed , perdu contre l'Angleterre en 1482
Le centre géographique de l'Ecosse se situe à quelques kilomètres du village de Newtonmore à Badenoch . [134] S'élevant à 1 344 mètres (4 409 pieds) au-dessus du niveau de la mer, le point culminant de l'Écosse est le sommet du Ben Nevis , à Lochaber , tandis que le plus long fleuve d'Écosse, la rivière Tay , coule sur une distance de 190 kilomètres (118 mi). [135] [136]
Géologie et géomorphologie
L'ensemble de l'Écosse était couvert de calottes glaciaires pendant les périodes glaciaires du Pléistocène et le paysage est très affecté par la glaciation. D'un point de vue géologique, le pays compte trois sous-divisions principales.
Les Highlands et les îles se trouvent au nord et à l' ouest de la faille Highland Boundary , qui s'étend d' Arran à Stonehaven . Cette partie de l'Écosse comprend en grande partie des roches anciennes du Cambrien et du Précambrien , qui ont été soulevées au cours de l' orogenèse calédonienne ultérieure . Il est parsemé d' intrusions ignées d'âge plus récent, dont les vestiges ont formé des massifs montagneux tels que les Cairngorms et Skye Cuillins .
Une exception significative à ce qui précède sont les lits fossilifères de vieux grès rouges trouvés principalement le long de la côte de Moray Firth . Les Highlands sont généralement montagneux et les plus hautes altitudes des îles britanniques se trouvent ici. L'Écosse compte plus de 790 îles réparties en quatre groupes principaux : les Shetland, les Orcades, les Hébrides intérieures et les Hébrides extérieures . Il existe de nombreux plans d'eau douce dont le Loch Lomond et le Loch Ness . Certaines parties du littoral sont constituées de machair , un pâturage de dunes de faible altitude.
Les basses terres centrales sont une vallée du rift comprenant principalement des formations paléozoïques . Beaucoup de ces sédiments ont une importance économique car c'est ici que se trouvent les roches contenant du charbon et du fer qui ont alimenté la révolution industrielle de l'Écosse . Cette région a également connu un volcanisme intense, Arthur's Seat à Édimbourg étant le vestige d'un volcan autrefois beaucoup plus grand. Cette zone est relativement basse, bien que même ici, des collines telles que Ochils et Campsie Fells soient rarement loin de la vue.
Les hautes terres du sud sont une chaîne de collines de près de 200 kilomètres (124 mi) de long, entrecoupées de larges vallées. Ils se trouvent au sud d'une deuxième ligne de faille (la faille Southern Uplands) qui va de Girvan à Dunbar . [137] [138] [139] Les fondations géologiques comprennent en grande partie des dépôts siluriens déposés il y a 400 à 500 millions d'années. Le point culminant des Southern Uplands est Merrick avec une altitude de 843 m (2 766 pi). [26] [140] [141] [142] Les Hautes Terres du Sud abritent le plus haut village d'Écosse, Wanlockhead (430 m ou 1411 pi au-dessus du niveau de la mer).[139]
Climat
Le climat de la majeure partie de l'Écosse est tempéré et océanique , et a tendance à être très changeant. Comme il est réchauffé par le Gulf Stream de l'Atlantique, il a des hivers beaucoup plus doux (mais des étés plus frais et plus humides) que les zones situées sous des latitudes similaires, telles que comme le Labrador , le sud de la Scandinavie , la région de Moscou en Russie et la péninsule du Kamchatka de l'autre côté de l' Eurasie . Cependant, les températures sont généralement plus basses que dans le reste du Royaume-Uni, avec une température de −27,2 °C (−17,0 °F) enregistrée à Braemar dans les monts Grampian , le 11 février 1895, la plus froide jamais enregistrée au Royaume-Uni. [143]Les maxima d'hiver sont en moyenne de 6 °C (43 °F) dans les basses terres, et les maxima d'été sont en moyenne de 18 °C (64 °F). La température la plus élevée enregistrée était de 32,9 °C (91,2 °F) à Greycrook , Scottish Borders le 9 août 2003. [144]
L'ouest de l'Écosse est généralement plus chaud que l'est, en raison de l'influence des courants de l' océan Atlantique et des températures de surface plus froides de la mer du Nord . Tiree , dans les Hébrides intérieures, est l'un des endroits les plus ensoleillés du pays : il y avait plus de 300 heures de soleil en mai 1975. [144] Les précipitations varient considérablement à travers l'Écosse. Les hautes terres de l'ouest de l'Écosse sont les plus humides, avec des précipitations annuelles à quelques endroits dépassant 3 000 mm (120 po). [145] En comparaison, une grande partie de l'Écosse des basses terres reçoit moins de 800 mm (31 po) par an. [146] Les fortes chutes de neige ne sont pas courantes dans les plaines, mais deviennent plus courantes avec l'altitude. Braemar a une moyenne de 59 jours de neige par an,[147] alors que de nombreuses zones côtières ont en moyenne moins de 10 jours de neige couchée par an. [146]
la faune et la flore
La faune écossaise est typique du nord-ouest de l'Europe, bien que plusieurs des plus grands mammifères tels que le lynx, l'ours brun, le loup, l'élan et le morse aient été chassés jusqu'à l'extinction à des époques historiques. Il existe d'importantes populations de phoques et des sites de nidification d'importance internationale pour une variété d'oiseaux marins tels que les fous de Bassan . [148] L' aigle royal est en quelque sorte une icône nationale. [149]
Sur les sommets des hautes montagnes, des espèces telles que le lagopède , le lièvre variable et l' hermine peuvent être observées dans leur phase de couleur blanche pendant les mois d'hiver. [150] Des vestiges de la forêt indigène de pin sylvestre existent [151] et dans ces zones, le bec - croisé d'Écosse , la seule espèce d'oiseau et de vertébré endémique du Royaume-Uni , peut être trouvé aux côtés du grand tétras , du chat sauvage d'Écosse , de l'écureuil roux et de la martre des pins . [152] [153] [154] Divers animaux ont été réintroduits, dont lele pygargue à queue blanche en 1975, le milan royal dans les années 1980, [155] [156] et il y a eu des projets expérimentaux impliquant le castor et le sanglier . Aujourd'hui, une grande partie de la forêt calédonienne indigène restante se trouve dans le parc national de Cairngorms et des vestiges de la forêt subsistent à 84 endroits à travers l'Écosse. Sur la côte ouest, des vestiges de l'ancienne forêt tropicale celtique subsistent, en particulier sur la péninsule de Taynish en Argyll , ces forêts sont particulièrement rares en raison des taux élevés de déforestation tout au long de l'histoire écossaise. [157] [158]
La flore du pays est variée, incorporant à la fois des forêts de feuillus et de conifères ainsi que des espèces de landes et de toundra . Cependant, la plantation commerciale d'arbres à grande échelle et la gestion de l'habitat des hautes terres marécageuses pour le pâturage des moutons et des activités sportives sur le terrain comme la traque des cerfs et la chasse au tétras ont un impact sur la répartition des plantes et des animaux indigènes . [159] L'arbre le plus haut du Royaume-Uni est un grand sapin planté à côté du Loch Fyne , de l'Argyll dans les années 1870 et de l' if de Fortingall.peut avoir 5 000 ans et est probablement le plus ancien être vivant d'Europe. [ douteux ] [160] [161] [162] Bien que le nombre de plantes vasculaires indigènes soit faible par rapport aux normes mondiales, la flore bryophyte substantielle de l'Écosse est d'importance mondiale. [163] [164]
Démographie
La population de l'Écosse au recensement de 2001 était de 5 062 011. Ce chiffre est passé à 5 295 400, le plus élevé jamais enregistré, lors du recensement de 2011. [165] L'estimation la plus récente de l'ONS, pour la mi-2019, était de 5 463 300. [12]
Lors du recensement de 2011, 62 % de la population écossaise a déclaré que son identité nationale était « écossaise uniquement », 18 % comme « écossaise et britannique », 8 % comme « britannique uniquement » et 4 % ont choisi « autre identité uniquement ». [166]
Bien qu'Édimbourg soit la capitale de l'Écosse, la plus grande ville est Glasgow, qui compte un peu plus de 584 000 habitants. L' agglomération du Grand Glasgow , avec une population de près de 1,2 million d'habitants, abrite près d'un quart de la population écossaise. [167] La ceinture centrale est l'endroit où se trouvent la plupart des villes principales, y compris Glasgow, Édimbourg, Dundee et Perth. La seule grande ville d'Écosse en dehors de la ceinture centrale est Aberdeen. Les basses terres écossaises abritent 80% de la population totale, où la ceinture centrale compte 3,5 millions de personnes.
En général, seules les îles les plus accessibles et les plus grandes restent habitées. Actuellement, moins de 90 restent habités. Les hautes terres du sud sont essentiellement de nature rurale et dominées par l'agriculture et la foresterie. [168] [169] En raison des problèmes de logement à Glasgow et à Édimbourg, cinq nouvelles villes ont été désignées entre 1947 et 1966. Ce sont East Kilbride , Glenrothes , Cumbernauld , Livingston et Irvine . [170]
L'immigration depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale a donné à Glasgow, Édimbourg et Dundee de petites communautés sud-asiatiques. [171] En 2011, on estimait à 49 000 le nombre de personnes ethniquement pakistanaises vivant en Écosse, ce qui en fait le plus grand groupe ethnique non blanc. [6] Depuis l' élargissement de l'Union européenne, de plus en plus de personnes d' Europe centrale et orientale ont déménagé en Écosse et le recensement de 2011 a indiqué que 61 000 Polonais y vivent. [6] [172]
L'Écosse compte trois langues officiellement reconnues : l'anglais, l' écossais et le gaélique écossais . [173] [174] L'anglais standard écossais, une variété d'anglais parlé en Écosse, est à une extrémité d'un continuum linguistique bipolaire , avec de larges Écossais à l'autre. [175] L'anglais standard écossais peut avoir été influencé à des degrés divers par les Écossais. [176] [177] Le recensement de 2011 a indiqué que 63% de la population n'avait « aucune compétence en écossais ». [178] D'autres parlent l' anglais des Highlands . Le gaélique est principalement parlé dans les îles occidentales, où une grande partie de la population le parle encore ; Cependant, à l'échelle nationale, son utilisation est limitée à seulement 1% de la population. [179] Le nombre de locuteurs du gaélique en Écosse est passé de 250 000 en 1881 à 60 000 en 2008. [180]
Il y a beaucoup plus de personnes d'ascendance écossaise vivant à l'étranger que la population totale de l'Écosse. Lors du recensement de 2000, 9,2 millions d'Américains ont déclaré avoir un certain degré d' ascendance écossaise . [181] La population protestante d' Ulster est principalement d'origine écossaise des basses terres, [182] et on estime qu'il y a plus de 27 millions de descendants de la migration écossaise-irlandaise vivant maintenant aux États-Unis. [183] [184] Au Canada, la communauté écossaise-canadienne compte 4,7 millions de personnes. [185] Environ 20 % de la population de colons européens d'origine de la Nouvelle-Zélande sont venus d'Écosse. [186]
En août 2012, la population écossaise a atteint un niveau record de 5,25 millions de personnes. [187] Les raisons invoquées étaient qu'en Écosse, les naissances dépassaient le nombre de décès et que les immigrants venaient d'outre-mer pour l'Écosse. En 2011, 43 700 personnes ont quitté le Pays de Galles, l'Irlande du Nord ou l'Angleterre pour vivre en Écosse. [187]
L' indice synthétique de fécondité (ISF) en Écosse est inférieur au taux de remplacement de 2,1 (l'ISF était de 1,73 en 2011 [188] ). La majorité des naissances concernent des femmes célibataires (51,3 % des naissances étaient hors mariage en 2012 [189] ).
| Rang | Nom | Espace conseil | Pop. | Rang | Nom | Espace conseil | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Glasgow Edimbourg  |
1 | Glasgow | Ville de Glasgow | 590 507 | 11 | Dunfermline | Fifre | 49 706 |  Aberdeen Dundee  |
| 2 | Edinbourg | Ville d'Édimbourg | 459 366 | 12 | Inverness | Montagnes | 48 201 | ||
| 3 | Aberdeen | Ville d'Aberdeen | 195 021 | 13 | Perth | Perth et Kinross | 46 970 | ||
| 4 | Dundee | Ville de Dundee | 147 285 | 14 | Ayr | Ayrshire du Sud | 46 849 | ||
| 5 | Cachemire | Renfrewshire | 76 834 | 15 | Kilmarnock | Ayrshire de l'Est | 46 159 | ||
| 6 | Kilbride Est | South Lanarkshire | 74 395 | 16 | Greenock | Inverclyde | 44 248 | ||
| 7 | Livingston | Lothian occidental | 56 269 | 17 | Coatbridge | North Lanarkshire | 43 841 | ||
| 8 | Hamilton | South Lanarkshire | 53 188 | 18 | Glenrothes | Fifre | 39 277 | ||
| 9 | Cumbernauld | North Lanarkshire | 52 270 | 19 | Airdrie | North Lanarkshire | 37 132 | ||
| dix | Kirkcaldy | Fifre | 49 709 | 20 | Stirling | Stirling | 36 142 | ||
L'espérance de vie des personnes nées en Écosse entre 2012 et 2014 est de 77,1 ans pour les hommes et de 81,1 ans pour les femmes. [191] C'est le plus bas des quatre pays du Royaume-Uni. [191]
Religion
Just over half (54%) of the Scottish population reported being a Christian while nearly 37% reported not having a religion in a 2011 census.[192] Since the Scottish Reformation of 1560, the national church (the Church of Scotland, also known as The Kirk) has been Protestant in classification and Reformed in theology. Since 1689 it has had a Presbyterian system of church government and enjoys independence from the state.[26] Its membership is 398,389,[193] about 7.5% of the total population, though according to the 2014 Scottish Annual Household Survey, 27.8%, or 1.5 million adherents, identified the Church of Scotland as the church of their religion.[194] The Church operates a territorial parish structure, with every community in Scotland having a local congregation.
Scotland also has a significant Roman Catholic population, 19% professing that faith, particularly in Greater Glasgow and the north-west.[195] After the Reformation, Roman Catholicism in Scotland continued in the Highlands and some western islands like Uist and Barra, and it was strengthened during the 19th century by immigration from Ireland. Other Christian denominations in Scotland include the Free Church of Scotland, and various other Presbyterian offshoots. Scotland's third largest church is the Scottish Episcopal Church.[196]
There are an estimated 75,000 Muslims in Scotland (about 1.4% of the population),[192][197] and significant but smaller Jewish, Hindu and Sikh communities, especially in Glasgow.[197] The Samyé Ling monastery near Eskdalemuir, which celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2007, is the first Buddhist monastery in western Europe.[198]
Politics and government
The head of state of the United Kingdom is the monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II (since 1952). The monarchy of the United Kingdom continues to use a variety of styles, titles and other royal symbols of statehood specific to pre-union Scotland, including: the Royal Standard of Scotland, the Royal coat of arms used in Scotland together with its associated Royal Standard, royal titles including that of Duke of Rothesay, certain Great Officers of State, the chivalric Order of the Thistle and, since 1999, reinstating a ceremonial role for the Crown of Scotland after a 292-year hiatus.[199] Elizabeth II's regnal numbering caused controversy in 1953 because there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland. MacCormick v Lord Advocate was a legal action was brought in Scotland's Court of Session by the Scottish Covenant Association to contest the right of the Queen to entitle herself "Elizabeth II" within Scotland, but the Crown won the appeal against the case's dismissal, since as royal titulature was legislated for by the Royal Titles Act 1953 and a matter of royal prerogative.[200]
Scotland has limited self-government within the United Kingdom, as well as representation in the British Parliament. Executive and legislative powers respectively have been devolved to the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh since 1999. The British Parliament retains control over reserved matters specified in the Scotland Act 1998, including taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting.[201] The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland. It initially had only a limited power to vary income tax,[202] but powers over taxation and social security were significantly expanded by the Scotland Acts of 2012 and 2016.[203] The 2016 Act gave the Scottish Government powers to manage the affairs of the Crown Estate in Scotland, leading to the creation of Crown Estate Scotland.[204]
The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to the British Parliament by passing a Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered more appropriate for a certain issue. The programmes of legislation enacted by the Scottish Parliament have seen a divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the UK. For instance, university education and some care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the UK. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places.[205]
The Scottish Parliament is a unicameral legislature with 129 members (MSPs): 73 of them represent individual constituencies and are elected on a first-past-the-post system; the other 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions by the additional member system. MSPs normally serve for a five-year period.[206] The Parliament nominates one of its Members, who is then appointed by the monarch to serve as first minister. Other ministers are appointed by the first minister and serve at his/her discretion. Together they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of the devolved government.[207] The Scottish Government is headed by the first minister, who is accountable to the Scottish Parliament and is the minister of charge of the Scottish Government. The first minister is also the political leader of Scotland. The Scottish Government also comprises the deputy first minister, currently John Swinney MSP, who deputises for the first minister during a period of absence. Alongside the deputy first minister's requirements as Deputy, the minister also has a cabinet ministerial responsibility.[208] The current Scottish Government has nine cabinet secretaries and there are 15 other ministers who work alongside the cabinet secretaries in their appointed areas.[209]
In the 2021 election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won 64 of the 129 seats available.[210] Nicola Sturgeon, the leader of the SNP, has been the first minister since November 2014.[211] The Scottish Conservatives, Scottish Labour, the Scottish Liberal Democrats and the Scottish Greens also have representation in the Parliament.[210] The next Scottish Parliament election is due to be held on 7 May 2026.[212]
Scotland is represented in the British House of Commons by 59 MPs elected from territory-based Scottish constituencies. In the 2019 general election, the SNP won 48 of the 59 seats.[213] This represented a significant increase from the 2017 general election, when the SNP won 35 seats.[213][214] Conservative, Labour and Liberal Democrat parties also represent Scottish constituencies in the House of Commons.[213] The next general election is scheduled for 2 May 2024. The Scotland Office represents the British government in Scotland on reserved matters and represents Scottish interests within the government.[215] The Scotland Office is led by the Secretary of State for Scotland, who sits in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom.[216] Conservative MP Alister Jack has held the position since July 2019.[216]
Devolved government relations
The relationships between the central government of the UK and devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are based on the extra-statutory principles and agreements with the main elements being set out in a Memorandum of Understanding between the British government and the devolved governments of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The MOU lays emphasis on the principles of good communication, consultation and co-operation.[217]
Since devolution in 1999, Scotland has devolved stronger working relations across the two other devolved governments, the Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive. Whilst there are no formal concordats between the Scottish Government, Welsh Government and Northern Ireland Executive, ministers from each devolved government meet at various points throughout the year at various events such as the British-Irish Council and also meet to discuss matters and issues that are devolved to each government.[218] Scotland, along with the Welsh Government, British Government as well as the Northern Ireland executive, participate in the Joint Ministerial Committee (JMC) which allows each government to discuss policy issues together and work together across each government to find solutions. The Scottish Government considers the successful re-establishment of the Plenary, and establishment of the Domestic fora to be important facets of the relationship with the British Government and the other devolved administrations.[218]
In the aftermath of the United Kingdom's decision to withdraw from the European Union in 2016, the Scottish Government has called for there to be a joint approach from each of the devolved governments. In early 2017, the devolved governments met to discuss Brexit and agree on Brexit strategies from each devolved government[219] which lead for Theresa May to issue a statement that claims that the devolved governments will not have a central role or decision making process in the Brexit process, but that the central government plans to "fully engage" Scotland in talks alongside the governments of Wales and Northern Ireland.[220]
International diplomacy
Whilst foreign policy remains a reserved matter,[221] the Scottish Government still has the power and ability to strengthen and develop Scotland, the economy and Scottish interests on the world stage and encourage foreign businesses, international devolved, regional and central governments to invest in Scotland.[222] Whilst the first minister usually undertakes a number of foreign and international visits to promote Scotland, international relations, European and Commonwealth relations are also included within the portfolios of both the Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs (responsible for international development)[223] and the Minister for International Development and Europe (responsible for European Union relations and international relations).[224]
Whilst an independent sovereign nation, Scotland had a close "special relationship" with France (known then as the Kingdom of France). In 1295, both Scotland and France signed what became known as the Auld Alliance in Paris, which acted as a military and diplomatic alliance between English invasion and expansion.[225] The French military sought the assistance of Scotland in 1415 during the Battle of Agincourt which was close to bringing the Kingdom of France to collapse.[225] The Auld Alliance was seen as important for Scotland and its position within Europe, having signed a treaty of military, economic and diplomatic co-operation with a wealthy European nation.[226] There had been an agreement between Scotland and France that allowed citizens of both countries to hold dual citizenship, however, this was revoked by the French Government in 1903.[227] In recent times, there have been arguments that indicate that the Auld Alliance was never formally ended by either Scotland or France, and that many elements of the treaty may remain in place today.[228] Scotland and France do, however, continue to have a special relationship, with a Statement of Intent being signed in 2013 which committed both Scotland and France to building on shared history, friendship, co-operation between governments and cultural exchange programmes.[229]
During the G8 Summit in 2005, the first minister Jack McConnell welcomed each head of government of the G8 nations to the country's Glasgow Prestwick Airport[230] on behalf of then prime minister Tony Blair. At the same time, McConnell and the then Scottish Executive pioneered the way forward to launch what would become the Scotland Malawi Partnership which co-ordinates Scottish activities to strengthen existing links with Malawi.[231] During McConnell's time as first minister, several relations with Scotland, including Scottish and Russian relations strengthened following a visit by President of Russia Vladimir Putin to Edinburgh. McConnell, speaking at the end, highlighted that the visit by Putin was a "post-devolution" step towards "Scotland regaining its international identity".[232]
Under the Salmond administration, Scotland's trade and investment deals with countries such as China[233][234] and Canada, where Salmond established the Canada Plan 2010–2015 which aimed to strengthen "the important historical, cultural and economic links" between both Canada and Scotland.[235] To promote Scotland's interests and Scottish businesses in North America, there is a Scottish Affairs Office located in Washington, D.C. with the aim to promoting Scotland in both the United States and Canada.[236]
During a 2017 visit to the United States, the first minister Nicola Sturgeon met Jerry Brown, Governor of California, where both signed an agreement committing both the Government of California and the Scottish Government to work together to tackle climate change,[237] as well as Sturgeon signing a £6.3 million deal for Scottish investment from American businesses and firms promoting trade, tourism and innovation.[238] During an official visit to the Republic of Ireland in 2016, Sturgeon claimed that is it "important for Ireland and Scotland and the whole of the British Isles that Ireland has a strong ally in Scotland".[239] During the same engagement, Sturgeon became the first head of government to address the Seanad Éireann, the upper house of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament).[239]
International Offices
Scotland has a network of eight international offices across the world, these are located in:
- Beijing (Scottish Government Beijing Office) (British Embassy)
- Berlin (Scottish Government Berlin Office)
- Brussels (Scotland House Brussels)
- Dublin (Scottish Government Dublin Office) (British Embassy)
- London (Scotland House London)
- Ottawa (Scottish Government Ottawa Office) (British High Commission)
- Paris (Scottish Government Office) (British Embassy)
- Washington DC (Scottish Government Washington DC Office) (British Embassy)[240]
Constitutional changes
A policy of devolution had been advocated by the three main British political parties with varying enthusiasm during recent history. A previous Labour leader, John Smith, described the revival of a Scottish parliament as the "settled will of the Scottish people".[242] The devolved Scottish Parliament was created after a referendum in 1997 found majority support for both creating the Parliament and granting it limited powers to vary income tax.[243]
The Scottish National Party (SNP), which supports Scottish independence, was first elected to form the Scottish Government in 2007. The new government established a "National Conversation" on constitutional issues, proposing a number of options such as increasing the powers of the Scottish Parliament, federalism, or a referendum on Scottish independence from the United Kingdom. In rejecting the last option, the three main opposition parties in the Scottish Parliament created a commission to investigate the distribution of powers between devolved Scottish and UK-wide bodies.[244] The Scotland Act 2012, based on proposals by the commission, was subsequently enacted devolving additional powers to the Scottish Parliament.[245]
In August 2009 the SNP proposed a bill to hold a referendum on independence in November 2010. Opposition from all other major parties led to an expected defeat.[246][247][248] After the 2011 Scottish Parliament election gave the SNP an overall majority in the Scottish Parliament, the 2014 Scottish independence referendum was held on 18 September.[249] The referendum resulted in a rejection of independence, by 55.3% to 44.7%.[250][251] During the campaign, the three main parties in the British Parliament pledged to extend the powers of the Scottish Parliament.[252][253] An all-party commission chaired by Robert Smith, Baron Smith of Kelvin was formed,[253] which led to a further devolution of powers through the Scotland Act 2016.[254]
Following the European Union Referendum Act 2015, the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum was held on 23 June 2016 on Britain's membership of the European Union. A majority in the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the EU, whilst a majority within Scotland voted to remain a member.[255]
The first minister, Nicola Sturgeon, announced the following day that as a result a new independence referendum was "highly likely".[256][255] On 31 January 2020, the United Kingdom formally withdrew from the European Union. At Holyrood, Sturgeon's governing SNP continues to campaign for such a referendum; in December 2019 a formal request for the powers to hold one under Section 30 of the Scotland Act was submitted.[257][258][259] At Westminster, the governing second Johnson ministry of the Conservative Party is opposed to another referendum and has refused the first minister's request.[260][261][262] Because constitutional affairs are reserved matters under the Scotland Act, the Scottish Parliament would again have to be granted temporary additional powers under Section 30 in order to hold a legally binding vote.[261][263][264]
Administrative subdivisions
Historical subdivisions of Scotland included the mormaerdom, stewartry, earldom, burgh, parish, county and regions and districts. Some of these names are still sometimes used as geographical descriptors.[265]
Modern Scotland is subdivided in various ways depending on the purpose. In local government, there have been 32 single-tier council areas since 1996,[266] whose councils are responsible for the provision of all local government services. Decisions are made by councillors who are elected at local elections every five years. The head of each council is usually the Lord Provost alongside the Leader of the council,[267] with a Chief Executive being appointed as director of the council area.[268] Community Councils are informal organisations that represent specific sub-divisions within each council area.[265]
In the Scottish Parliament, there are 73 constituencies and eight regions. For the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there are 59 constituencies. Until 2013, the Scottish fire brigades and police forces were based on a system of regions introduced in 1975. For healthcare and postal districts, and a number of other governmental and non-governmental organisations such as the churches, there are other long-standing methods of subdividing Scotland for the purposes of administration.
City status in the United Kingdom is conferred by letters patent.[269] There are seven cities in Scotland: Aberdeen, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Inverness, Stirling and Perth.[270]
Law and criminal justice
Scots law has a basis derived from Roman law,[271] combining features of both uncodified civil law, dating back to the Corpus Juris Civilis, and common law with medieval sources. The terms of the Treaty of Union with England in 1707 guaranteed the continued existence of a separate legal system in Scotland from that of England and Wales.[272] Prior to 1611, there were several regional law systems in Scotland, most notably Udal law in Orkney and Shetland, based on old Norse law. Various other systems derived from common Celtic or Brehon laws survived in the Highlands until the 1800s.[273]
Scots law provides for three types of courts responsible for the administration of justice: civil, criminal and heraldic. The supreme civil court is the Court of Session, although civil appeals can be taken to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (or before 1 October 2009, the House of Lords). The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland. The Court of Session is housed at Parliament House, in Edinburgh, which was the home of the pre-Union Parliament of Scotland with the High Court of Justiciary and the Supreme Court of Appeal currently located at the Lawnmarket. The sheriff court is the main criminal and civil court, hearing most cases. There are 49 sheriff courts throughout the country.[274] District courts were introduced in 1975 for minor offences and small claims. These were gradually replaced by Justice of the Peace Courts from 2008 to 2010. The Court of the Lord Lyon regulates heraldry.
For three centuries the Scots legal system was unique for being the only national legal system without a parliament. This ended with the advent of the Scottish Parliament in 1999, which legislates for Scotland. Many features within the system have been preserved. Within criminal law, the Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts: "guilty", "not guilty" and "not proven".[275] Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal, typically with no possibility of retrial in accordance with the rule of double jeopardy. There is, however, the possibility of a retrial where new evidence emerges at a later date that might have proven conclusive in the earlier trial at first instance, where the person acquitted subsequently admits the offence or where it can be proved that the acquittal was tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice – see the provisions of the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011. Many laws differ between Scotland and the other parts of the United Kingdom, and many terms differ for certain legal concepts. Manslaughter, in England and Wales, is broadly similar to culpable homicide in Scotland, and arson is called wilful fire raising. Indeed, some acts considered crimes in England and Wales, such as forgery, are not so in Scotland. Procedure also differs. Scots juries, sitting in criminal cases, consist of fifteen jurors, which is three more than is typical in many countries.[276]
The Scottish Prison Service (SPS) manages the prisons in Scotland, which collectively house over 8,500 prisoners.[277] The Cabinet Secretary for Justice is responsible for the Scottish Prison Service within the Scottish Government.
Health care
Health care in Scotland is mainly provided by NHS Scotland, Scotland's public health care system. This was founded by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1947 (later repealed by the National Health Service (Scotland) Act 1978) that took effect on 5 July 1948 to coincide with the launch of the NHS in England and Wales. However, even prior to 1948, half of Scotland's landmass was already covered by state-funded health care, provided by the Highlands and Islands Medical Service.[279] Healthcare policy and funding is the responsibility of the Scottish Government's Health Directorates. The current Cabinet Secretary for Health and Social Care is Humza Yousaf[280] and the Director-General (DG) Health and chief executive, NHS Scotland is Caroline Lamb.[281]
In 2008, the NHS in Scotland had around 158,000 staff including more than 47,500 nurses, midwives and health visitors and over 3,800 consultants. There are also more than 12,000 doctors, family practitioners and allied health professionals, including dentists, opticians and community pharmacists, who operate as independent contractors providing a range of services within the NHS in return for fees and allowances. These fees and allowances were removed in May 2010, and prescriptions are entirely free, although dentists and opticians may charge if the patient's household earns over a certain amount, about £30,000 per annum.[282]
Economy
Scotland has a Western-style open mixed economy closely linked with the rest of the UK and the wider world. Traditionally, the Scottish economy was dominated by heavy industry underpinned by shipbuilding in Glasgow, coal mining and steel industries. Petroleum related industries associated with the extraction of North Sea oil have also been important employers from the 1970s, especially in the north-east of Scotland. De-industrialisation during the 1970s and 1980s saw a shift from a manufacturing focus towards a more service-oriented economy.
Scotland's gross domestic product (GDP), including oil and gas produced in Scottish waters, was estimated at £150 billion for the calendar year 2012.[284] In 2014, Scotland's per capita GDP was one of the highest in the EU.[285] As of April 2019 the Scottish unemployment rate was 3.3%, below the UK's overall rate of 3.8%, and the Scottish employment rate was 75.9%.[286]
Edinburgh is the financial services centre of Scotland, with many large finance firms based there, including: Lloyds Banking Group (owners of HBOS); the Government-owned Royal Bank of Scotland and Standard Life. Edinburgh was ranked 15th in the list of world financial centres in 2007, but fell to 37th in 2012, following damage to its reputation,[287] and in 2016 was ranked 56th out of 86.[288] Its status had returned to 17th however by 2020.[289]
In 2014, total Scottish exports (excluding intra-UK trade) were estimated to be £27.5 billion.[290] Scotland's primary exports include whisky, electronics and financial services.[291] The United States, Netherlands, Germany, France, and Norway constitute the country's major export markets.[291]
Whisky is one of Scotland's more known goods of economic activity. Exports increased by 87% in the decade to 2012[292] and were valued at £4.3 billion in 2013, which was 85% of Scotland's food and drink exports.[293] It supports around 10,000 jobs directly and 25,000 indirectly.[294] It may contribute £400–682 million to Scotland, rather than several billion pounds, as more than 80% of whisky produced is owned by non-Scottish companies.[295] A briefing published in 2002 by the Scottish Parliament Information Centre (SPICe) for the Scottish Parliament's Enterprise and Life Long Learning Committee stated that tourism accounted for up to 5% of GDP and 7.5% of employment.[296]
Scotland was one of the industrial powerhouses of Europe from the time of the Industrial Revolution onwards, being a world leader in manufacturing.[297] This left a legacy in the diversity of goods and services which Scotland produces, from textiles, whisky and shortbread to jet engines, buses, computer software, ships, avionics and microelectronics, as well as banking, insurance, investment management and other related financial services.[298] In common with most other advanced industrialised economies, Scotland has seen a decline in the importance of both manufacturing industries and primary-based extractive industries. This has, however, been combined with a rise in the service sector of the economy, which has grown to be the largest sector in Scotland.[299]
Currency
Although the Bank of England is the central bank for the UK, three Scottish clearing banks issue Sterling banknotes: the Bank of Scotland, the Royal Bank of Scotland and the Clydesdale Bank. The issuing of banknotes by retail banks in Scotland is subject to the Banking Act 2009, which repealed all earlier legislation under which banknote issuance was regulated, and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Banknote Regulations 2009.[300]
The value of the Scottish banknotes in circulation in 2013 was £3.8 billion, underwritten by the Bank of England using funds deposited by each clearing bank, under the Banking Act 2009, in order to cover the total value of such notes in circulation.[301]
Military
Of the money spent on UK defence, about £3.3 billion can be attributed to Scotland as of 2018/2019.[302]
Scotland had a long military tradition predating the Treaty of Union with England; the Scots Army and Royal Scots Navy were (with the exception of the Atholl Highlanders, Europe's only legal private army) merged with their English counterparts to form the Royal Navy and the British Army, which together form part of the British Armed Forces. Numerous Scottish regiments have at various times existed in the British Army. Distinctively Scottish regiments in the British Army include the Scots Guards, the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and the 154 (Scottish) Regiment RLC, an Army Reserve regiment of the Royal Logistic Corps. In 2006, as a result of the Delivering Security in a Changing World white paper, the Scottish infantry regiments in the Scottish Division were amalgamated to form the Royal Regiment of Scotland. As a result of the Cameron–Clegg coalition's Strategic Defence and Security Review 2010, the Scottish regiments of the line in the British Army infantry, having previously formed the Scottish Division, were reorganised into the Scottish, Welsh and Irish Division in 2017. Before the formation of the Scottish Division, the Scottish infantry was organised into a Lowland Brigade and Highland Brigade.
Because of their topography and perceived remoteness, parts of Scotland have housed many sensitive defence establishments.[303][304][305] Between 1960 and 1991, the Holy Loch was a base for the US fleet of Polaris ballistic missile submarines.[306] Today, Her Majesty's Naval Base Clyde, 25 miles (40 kilometres) north-west of Glasgow, is the base for the four Trident-armed Vanguard-class ballistic missile submarines that comprise the Britain's nuclear deterrent. Scapa Flow was the major Fleet base for the Royal Navy until 1956.
Scotland's Scapa Flow was the main base for the Royal Navy in the 20th century.[307] As the Cold War intensified in 1961, the United States deployed Polaris ballistic missiles, and submarines, in the Firth of Clyde's Holy Loch. Public protests from CND campaigners proved futile. The Royal Navy successfully convinced the government to allow the base because it wanted its own Polaris submarines, and it obtained them in 1963. The RN's nuclear submarine base opened with four Resolution-class Polaris submarines at the expanded Faslane Naval Base on the Gare Loch. The first patrol of a Trident-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War.[308]
A single front-line Royal Air Force base is located in Scotland. RAF Lossiemouth, located in Moray, is the most northerly air defence fighter base in the United Kingdom and is home to three fast-jet squadrons equipped with the Eurofighter Typhoon.
Education
The Scottish education system has always been distinct from the rest of the United Kingdom, with a characteristic emphasis on a broad education.[309] In the 15th century, the Humanist emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496, which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn "perfyct Latyne", resulting in an increase in literacy among a male and wealthy elite.[310] In the Reformation, the 1560 First Book of Discipline set out a plan for a school in every parish, but this proved financially impossible.[311] In 1616 an act in Privy council commanded every parish to establish a school.[312] By the late seventeenth century there was a largely complete network of parish schools in the lowlands, but in the Highlands basic education was still lacking in many areas.[313] Education remained a matter for the church rather than the state until the Education (Scotland) Act 1872.[314]
The Curriculum for Excellence, Scotland's national school curriculum, presently provides the curricular framework for children and young people from age 3 to 18.[315] All 3- and 4-year-old children in Scotland are entitled to a free nursery place. Formal primary education begins at approximately 5 years old and lasts for 7 years (P1–P7); children in Scotland study Standard Grades, or Intermediate qualifications between the ages of 14 and 16. These are being phased out and replaced by the National Qualifications of the Curriculum for Excellence. The school leaving age is 16, after which students may choose to remain at school and study for Access, Intermediate or Higher Grade and Advanced Higher qualifications. A small number of students at certain private, independent schools may follow the English system and study towards GCSEs and A and AS-Levels instead.[316]
There are fifteen Scottish universities, some of which are amongst the oldest in the world.[317][318] The four universities founded before the end of the 16th century – the University of St Andrews, the University of Glasgow, the University of Aberdeen and the University of Edinburgh – are collectively known as the ancient universities of Scotland, all of which rank among the 200 best universities in the world in the THE rankings, with Edinburgh placing in the top 50.[319] Scotland had more universities per capita in QS' World University Rankings' top 100 in 2012 than any other nation.[320] The country produces 1% of the world's published research with less than 0.1% of the world's population, and higher education institutions account for 9% of Scotland's service sector exports.[321][322] Scotland's University Courts are the only bodies in Scotland authorised to award degrees.
Tuition is handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS), which does not charge fees to what it defines as "Young Students". Young Students are defined as those under 25, without children, marriage, civil partnership or cohabiting partner, who have not been outside of full-time education for more than three years. Fees exist for those outside the young student definition, typically from £1,200 to £1,800 for undergraduate courses, dependent on year of application and type of qualification. Postgraduate fees can be up to £3,400.[323] The system has been in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished.[324] Labour's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty.[325]
Scotland's universities are complemented in the provision of Further and Higher Education by 43 colleges. Colleges offer National Certificates, Higher National Certificates, and Higher National Diplomas. These Group Awards, alongside Scottish Vocational Qualifications, aim to ensure Scotland's population has the appropriate skills and knowledge to meet workplace needs. In 2014, research reported by the Office for National Statistics found that Scotland was the most highly educated country in Europe and among the most well-educated in the world in terms of tertiary education attainment, with roughly 40% of people in Scotland aged 16–64 educated to NVQ level 4 and above.[326] Based on the original data for EU statistical regions, all four Scottish regions ranked significantly above the European average for completion of tertiary-level education by 25- to 64-year-olds.[327]
Kilmarnock Academy in East Ayrshire is one of only two schools in the UK, and the only school in Scotland, to have educated two Nobel Prize Laureates – Alexander Fleming, discoverer of Penicillin, and John Boyd Orr, 1st Baron Boyd-Orr, for his scientific research into nutrition and his work as the first Director-General of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Culture
Scottish music
Scottish music is a significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. A famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland bagpipe, a wind instrument consisting of three drones and a melody pipe (called the chanter), which are fed continuously by a reservoir of air in a bag. Bagpipe bands, featuring bagpipes and various types of drums, and showcasing Scottish music styles while creating new ones, have spread throughout the world. The clàrsach (harp), fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands. There are many successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles including Annie Lennox, Amy Macdonald, Runrig, Belle and Sebastian, Boards of Canada, Camera Obscura, Cocteau Twins, Deacon Blue, Franz Ferdinand, Susan Boyle, Emeli Sandé, Texas, The View, The Fratellis, Twin Atlantic and Biffy Clyro. Other Scottish musicians include Shirley Manson, Paolo Nutini, Andy Stewart and Calvin Harris, all of whom have achieved considerable commercial success in international music markets[328] Shirley Manson performed at the 1999 opening of the Scottish Parliament concert at Princes Street Gardens with her band Garbage.[329]
Rock band Simple Minds were the most commercially successful Scottish band of the 1980s, having found success in international markets such as the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand,[330] whilst pop singer Lewis Capaldi was recognised as the best selling artist in the UK in 2019.[331]
Awards in recognition of Scottish musical talent in Scotland include the Scottish Music Awards, Scottish Album of the Year Award, the Scots Trad Music Awards and the BBC Radio Scotland Young Traditional Musician award.
Literature
Scotland has a literary heritage dating back to the early Middle Ages. The earliest extant literature composed in what is now Scotland was in Brythonic speech in the 6th century, but is preserved as part of Welsh literature.[332] Later medieval literature included works in Latin,[333] Gaelic,[334] Old English[335] and French.[336] The first surviving major text in Early Scots is the 14th-century poet John Barbour's epic Brus, focusing on the life of Robert I,[337] and was soon followed by a series of vernacular romances and prose works.[338] In the 16th century, the crown's patronage helped the development of Scots drama and poetry,[339] but the accession of James VI to the English throne removed a major centre of literary patronage and Scots was sidelined as a literary language.[340] Interest in Scots literature was revived in the 18th century by figures including James Macpherson, whose Ossian Cycle made him the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation and was a major influence on the European Enlightenment.[341] It was also a major influence on Robert Burns, whom many consider the national poet,[342] and Walter Scott, whose Waverley Novels did much to define Scottish identity in the 19th century.[343] Towards the end of the Victorian era a number of Scottish-born authors achieved international reputations as writers in English, including Robert Louis Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, J. M. Barrie and George MacDonald.[344] In the 20th century the Scottish Renaissance saw a surge of literary activity and attempts to reclaim the Scots language as a medium for serious literature.[345] Members of the movement were followed by a new generation of post-war poets including Edwin Morgan, who would be appointed the first Scots Makar by the inaugural Scottish government in 2004.[346] From the 1980s Scottish literature enjoyed another major revival, particularly associated with a group of writers including Irvine Welsh.[345] Scottish poets who emerged in the same period included Carol Ann Duffy, who, in May 2009, was the first Scot named the monarch's Poet Laureate.[347]
Celtic connections
As one of the Celtic nations, Scotland and Scottish culture are represented at interceltic events at home and over the world. Scotland hosts several music festivals including Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway). Festivals celebrating Celtic culture, such as Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), and the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), feature elements of Scottish culture such as language, music and dance.[348][349][350][351]
National identity
The image of St. Andrew, martyred while bound to an X-shaped cross, first appeared in the Kingdom of Scotland during the reign of William I.[352] Following the death of King Alexander III in 1286 an image of Andrew was used on the seal of the Guardians of Scotland who assumed control of the kingdom during the subsequent interregnum.[353] Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew, the saltire, has its origins in the late 14th century; the Parliament of Scotland decreeing in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew's Cross on the front and back of their tunics.[354] Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew's Cross is said to date from at least the 15th century.[355] Since 1606 the saltire has also formed part of the design of the Union Flag. There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the thistle, the nation's floral emblem (celebrated in the song, The Thistle o' Scotland), the Declaration of Arbroath, incorporating a statement of political independence made on 6 April 1320, the textile pattern tartan that often signifies a particular Scottish clan and the royal Lion Rampant flag.[356][357][358] Highlanders can thank James Graham, 3rd Duke of Montrose, for the repeal in 1782 of the Act of 1747 prohibiting the wearing of tartans.[359]
Although there is no official national anthem of Scotland,[360] Flower of Scotland is played on special occasions and sporting events such as football and rugby matches involving the Scotland national teams and since 2010 is also played at the Commonwealth Games after it was voted the overwhelming favourite by participating Scottish athletes.[361] Other currently less popular candidates for the National Anthem of Scotland include Scotland the Brave, Highland Cathedral, Scots Wha Hae and A Man's A Man for A' That.[362]
St Andrew's Day, 30 November, is the national day, although Burns' Night tends to be more widely observed, particularly outside Scotland. In 2006, the Scottish Parliament passed the St Andrew's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007, designating the day an official bank holiday.[363] Tartan Day is a recent innovation from Canada.[364]
The national animal of Scotland is the unicorn, which has been a Scottish heraldic symbol since the 12th century.[365]
Cuisine
Scottish cuisine has distinctive attributes and recipes of its own but shares much with wider British and European cuisine as a result of local and foreign influences, both ancient and modern. Traditional Scottish dishes exist alongside international foodstuffs brought about by migration. Scotland's natural larder of game, dairy products, fish, fruit, and vegetables is the chief factor in traditional Scots cooking, with a high reliance on simplicity and a lack of spices from abroad, as these were historically rare and expensive. Irn-Bru is the most common Scottish carbonated soft drink, often described as "Scotland's other national drink" (after whisky).[366] During the Late Middle Ages and early modern era, French cuisine played a role in Scottish cookery due to cultural exchanges brought about by the "Auld Alliance",[367] especially during the reign of Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary, on her return to Scotland, brought an entourage of French staff who are considered responsible for revolutionising Scots cooking and for some of Scotland's unique food terminology.[368]
Media
National newspapers such as the Daily Record, The Herald, The Scotsman and The National are all produced in Scotland.[370] Important regional dailies include the Evening News in Edinburgh, The Courier in Dundee in the east, and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north.[370] Scotland is represented at the Celtic Media Festival, which showcases film and television from the Celtic countries. Scottish entrants have won many awards since the festival began in 1980.[371]
Television in Scotland is largely the same as UK-wide broadcasts, however, the national broadcaster is BBC Scotland, a division of the BBC. It runs three national television stations BBC One Scotland, BBC Scotland channel and the Gaelic-language broadcaster BBC Alba, and the national radio stations, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio nan Gàidheal, amongst others. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV which broadcasts on two of the three ITV regions of Scotland.[372]
Scotland has a number of production companies which produce films and television programmes for Scottish, British and international audiences. Popular films associated with Scotland through Scottish production or being filmed in Scotland include Braveheart (1995),[373] Highlander (1986),[373] Trainspotting (1996),[373] Red Road (2006), Neds (2010),[373] The Angel's Share (2012), Brave (2012)[374] and Outlaw King (2018).[375] Popular television programmes associated with Scotland include the long running BBC Scotland soap opera River City which has been broadcast since 2002,[376] Still Game, a popular Scottish sitcom broadcast throughout the United Kingdom (2002–2007, revived in 2016),[377] Rab C. Nesbitt, Two Doors Down[378] and Take the High Road.[379]
Wardpark Studios in Cumbernauld is one of Scotland's television and film production studios where the television programme Outlander is produced.[380] Dumbarton Studios, located in Dumbarton is largely used for BBC Scotland programming, used for the filming and production of television programmes such as Still Game, River City, Two Doors Down, and Shetland.[381]
Sport
Scotland hosts its own national sporting competitions and has independent representation at several international sporting events, including the FIFA World Cup, the Rugby Union World Cup, the Rugby League World Cup, the Cricket World Cup, the Netball World Cup and the Commonwealth Games. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world)[382] and the Scottish Rugby Union. Variations of football have been played in Scotland for centuries, with the earliest reference dating back to 1424.[383]
Football
The world's first official international association football match was held in 1872 and was the idea of C. W. Alcock of the Football Association which was seeking to promote Association Football in Scotland.[384][better source needed] The match took place at the West of Scotland Cricket Club's Hamilton Crescent ground in the Partick area of Glasgow. The match was between Scotland and England and resulted in a 0–0 draw. Following this, the newly developed football became the most popular sport in Scotland. The Scottish Cup was first contested in 1873. Queen's Park F.C., in Glasgow, is probably the oldest association football club in the world outside England.[385][386]
The Scottish Football Association (SFA), the second-oldest national football association in the world, is the main governing body for Scottish association football, and a founding member of the International Football Association Board (IFAB) which governs the Laws of the Game. As a result of this key role in the development of the sport Scotland is one of only four countries to have a permanent representative on the IFAB; the other four representatives being appointed for set periods by FIFA.[citation needed][387]
The SFA also has responsibility for the Scotland national football team, whose supporters are commonly known as the "Tartan Army". As of December 2019[update], Scotland are ranked as the 50th best national football team in the FIFA World Rankings.[388] The national team last attended the World Cup in France in 1998, but finished last in their group stage.[389] The Scotland women's team have achieved more recent success, qualifying for both Euro 2017[390] and the 2019 World Cup.[391] As of December 2019[update], they were ranked as the 22nd best women's national team in the FIFA Rankings.[392]
Scottish clubs have achieved some success in European competitions, with Celtic winning the European Cup in 1967, Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1972 and 1983 respectively, and Aberdeen also winning the UEFA Super Cup in 1983. Celtic, Rangers and Dundee United have also reached European finals, the most recent of these being Rangers in 2008.[393]
Golf
With the modern game of golf originating in 15th-century Scotland, the country is promoted as the home of golf.[394][395][396] To many golfers the Old Course in the Fife town of St Andrews, an ancient links course dating to before 1552,[397] is considered a site of pilgrimage.[398] In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.[399] The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major, is The Open Championship, which was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club, in Ayrshire, Scotland, with Scottish golfers winning the earliest majors.[400] There are many other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield, and Royal Troon.
Other sports
Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and shinty. In boxing, Scotland has had 13 world champions, including Ken Buchanan, Benny Lynch and Jim Watt. Scotland has also been successful in motorsport, particularly in Formula One. Notable drivers include; David Coulthard, Jim Clark, Paul Di Resta, and Jackie Stewart.[401] In IndyCar, Dario Franchitti has won 4 consecutive IndyCar world championships.[402]
Scotland has competed at every Commonwealth Games since 1930 and has won 356 medals in total—91 Gold, 104 Silver and 161 Bronze.[403] Edinburgh played host to the Commonwealth Games in 1970 and 1986, and most recently Glasgow in 2014.[404]
Infrastructure
Energy
Scotland's primary sources for energy are provided through renewable energy (42%), nuclear (35%) and fossil fuel generation (22%).[405]
The Scottish Government has a target to have the equivalent of 50% of the energy for Scotland's heat, transport and electricity consumption to be supplied from renewable sources by 2030.[406]
Transport
Air
Scotland has five international airports operating scheduled services to Europe, North America and Asia, as well as domestic services to England, Northern Ireland and Wales.
Highlands and Islands Airports operates eleven airports across the Highlands, Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles, which are primarily used for short distance, public service operations, although Inverness Airport has a number of scheduled flights to destinations across the UK and mainland Europe.
Edinburgh Airport is currently Scotland's busiest airport handling over 13 million passengers in 2017.[407] It is also the UK's 6th busiest airport.
British Airways, easyJet, flybe, Jet2, and Ryanair operate the majority of flights between Scotland and other major UK and European airports.
Four airlines are based in Scotland:
Rail
Network Rail owns and operates the fixed infrastructure assets of the railway system in Scotland, while the Scottish Government retains overall responsibility for rail strategy and funding in Scotland.[408] Scotland's rail network has 359 railway stations and around 1,710 miles (2,760 km) of track.[409] In 2018–19 there were 102 million passenger journeys on Scottish railways.[410]
The East Coast and West Coast main railway lines connect the major cities and towns of Scotland with each other and with the rail network in England. London North Eastern Railway provides inter-city rail journeys between Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Inverness to London. Domestic rail services within Scotland are operated by Abellio ScotRail. During the time of British Rail, the West Coast Main Line from London Euston to Glasgow Central was electrified in the early 1970s, followed by the East Coast Main Line in the late 1980s. British Rail created the ScotRail brand. When British Rail existed, many railway lines in Strathclyde were electrified. Strathclyde Passenger Transport Executive was at the forefront with the acclaimed "largest electrified rail network outside London". Some parts of the network are electrified, but there are no electrified lines in the Highlands, Angus, Aberdeenshire, the cities of Dundee or Aberdeen, or Perth & Kinross, and none of the islands has a rail link (although the railheads at Kyle of Lochalsh and Mallaig principally serve the islands).
The East Coast Main Line crosses the Firth of Forth by the Forth Bridge. Completed in 1890, this cantilever bridge has been described as "the one internationally recognised Scottish landmark".[411][page needed] Scotland's rail network is managed by Transport Scotland.[412]
Road
The Scottish motorways and major trunk roads are managed by Transport Scotland. The remainder of the road network is managed by the Scottish local authorities in each of their areas.
Water
Regular ferry services operate between the Scottish mainland and outlying islands. Ferries serving both the inner and outer Hebrides are principally operated by the state-owned enterprise Caledonian MacBrayne.
Services to the Northern Isles are operated by Serco. Other routes, served by multiple companies, connect southwest Scotland to Northern Ireland. DFDS Seaways operated a freight-only Rosyth – Zeebrugge ferry service, until a fire damaged the vessel DFDS were using.[413] A passenger service was also operated between 2002 and 2010.[414]
Additional routes are operated by local authorities.
Air Traffic Control tower of Edinburgh Airport, Scotland's busiest airport by passenger numbers
Domestic rail services are operated by Abellio ScotRail.
The M8 motorway is the busiest motorway in Scotland, running from Glasgow to Edinburgh
See also
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Sources
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- Sereny, Gitta (1996) [1995]. Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth. New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-679-76812-8.
Further reading
- Devine, T. M. [1999] (2000). The Scottish Nation 1700–2000 (New edition). London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-023004-1
- Donnachie, Ian and George Hewitt. Dictionary of Scottish History. (2001). 384 pp.
- Keay, John, and Julia Keay. Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland (2nd ed. 2001), 1101pp; 4000 articles; emphasis on history
- Koch, J. T. Celtic Culture: a Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-CLIO, 2006), ISBN 1-85109-440-7, 999pp.
- MacGibbon, David and Ross, Thomas, The ecclesiastical architecture of Scotland from the earliest Christian times to the seventeenth century; vol. 3/3, (1897).
- Tabraham, Chris, and Colin Baxter. The Illustrated History of Scotland (2004) excerpt and text search
- Trevor-Roper, Hugh, The Invention of Scotland: Myth and History, Yale, 2008, ISBN 0-300-13686-2
- Watson, Fiona, Scotland; From Prehistory to the Present. Tempus, 2003. 286 pp.
- Wilson, Neil. Lonely Planet Scotland (2013)
- Wormald, Jenny, Scotland: A History (2005) excerpt and text search
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
- Travel guides from Wikivoyage
- Resources from Wikiversity
- Data from Wikidata
- Visit Scotland, official site of Scotland's national tourist board.
- Scottish Government, official site of the Scottish Government.
- Scotland.org, the official online gateway to Scotland managed by the Scottish Government.
- Scotland at Curlie
- Geographic data related to Scotland at OpenStreetMap
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