Métissage
| Course |
|---|
| Génétique et différences |
| Société |
| Course et... |
| Rubriques connexes |
Métissage ( / m ɪ ˌ s ɛ dʒ ə n eɪ ʃ ən / ) est la métissages des personnes qui sont considérés comme des membres de différentes races . [1] Le mot, généralement considéré comme péjoratif, est dérivé d'une combinaison des termes latins miscere (signifiant "mélanger" par une mauvaise traduction allemande ; signifiant en fait "se déplacer") et genre ("race") du hellénique γένος. [2] Le mot est apparu pour la première fois dans " Misegenation: The Theory of the Blending of the Races, Applied to the American White Man and Negro", un prétendu pamphlet anti-abolitionniste David Goodman Croly et d'autres publié anonymement avant l'élection présidentielle américaine de 1864. [2] [3] Le terme est venu à être associé à des lois interdisant le mariage interracial et le sexe, qui étaient connus comme anti- -miscegenation lois . [4]
Les mariages interraciaux sont également souvent dénigrés dans les communautés raciales minoritaires. [5] Les données du Pew Research Center ont montré que les Afro-Américains sont deux fois plus susceptibles que les Américains blancs de croire que le mariage interracial « est une mauvaise chose ». [6] Il existe une quantité considérable de littérature scientifique qui démontre des modèles similaires. [7] [8]Cependant, la plupart des recherches scientifiques menées sur les attitudes du public à l'égard du métissage s'intéressent presque exclusivement aux attitudes des Blancs à ce sujet ; très peu de recherches se concentrent sur les attitudes des groupes ethniques non blancs envers le métissage. Bien que l'idée que le mélange racial soit indésirable soit apparue à différents moments de l'histoire, elle a pris une importance particulière parmi les communautés blanches d'Europe à l' époque du colonialisme . [9]
Bien que le terme « métissage » ait été formé du latin miscere « mélanger » plus le genre « race » ou « genre », et qu’il puisse donc être perçu comme étant de valeur neutre, c’est presque toujours un terme péjoratif qui est utilisé par les gens qui croient en la supériorité et la pureté raciales . [10] Les termes moins chargés pour les relations multiethniques, tels que les mariages interracial ou interethniques et les enfants métis ou multiethniques, sont plus courants dans l'usage contemporain.
En Amérique espagnole , le terme mestizaje , dérivé de mestizo, est un terme utilisé pour décrire une personne qui est la progéniture d'un indigène américain et d'un européen. La principale raison pour laquelle il reste si peu de peuples autochtones d'Amérique centrale et d'Amérique du Sud est le métissage persistant et omniprésent entre les colons ibériques et la population autochtone américaine, qui est le mélange le plus courant d'ethnies trouvées dans les tests génétiques d'aujourd'hui. les Latinos du jour. [11] [12]Cela explique pourquoi les Latinos d'Amérique du Nord, dont la grande majorité sont des immigrants ou des descendants d'immigrants d'Amérique centrale et d'Amérique du Sud, ont en moyenne 18% d'ascendance amérindienne et 65,1% d'ascendance européenne (principalement de la péninsule ibérique ). [13] [14]
Utilisation
De nos jours, l'utilisation du mot métissage est évitée par de nombreux chercheurs, car le terme suggère que la race est un phénomène biologique concret, plutôt qu'une catégorisation imposée à certaines relations. L'utilisation historique du terme dans des contextes qui impliquaient généralement une désapprobation est également une raison pour laquelle des termes plus neutres sans ambiguïté tels que interracial , interethnique ou interculturel sont plus courants dans l'usage contemporain. [15] Le terme reste utilisé parmi les universitaires lorsqu'il se réfère aux pratiques passées concernant la multiracialité , telles que les lois anti-métissage qui interdisaient les mariages interraciaux. [16]
En espagnol, le portugais et le français, les mots utilisés pour décrire le mélange des races sont mestizaje , mestiçagem et métissages . Ces mots, beaucoup plus anciens que le terme métissage , sont dérivés du latin tardif mixticius pour « mélangé », qui est aussi la racine du mot espagnol mestizo . (Le portugais utilise également miscigenação , dérivé de la même racine latine que le mot anglais.) Ces termes non anglais pour « mélange de races » ne sont pas considérés comme aussi offensants que « métissage », bien qu'ils aient été historiquement liés au système des castes ( caste) qui a été établie à l'époque coloniale en Amérique latine hispanophone.
Aujourd'hui, les mélanges entre les races et les ethnies sont divers, il est donc préférable d'utiliser le terme « métisse » ou simplement « métisse » ( mezcla ). En Amérique latine lusophone (c'est-à-dire au Brésil ), une forme plus douce de système de castes existait, même si elle prévoyait également une discrimination juridique et sociale entre les individus appartenant à des races différentes, puisque l' esclavage pour les Noirs existait jusqu'à la fin du XIXe siècle. Les mariages mixtes ont eu lieu de manière significative dès les toutes premières colonies, leurs descendants atteignant un rang élevé dans le gouvernement et la société. [ citation nécessaire ]À ce jour, il existe des controverses si le système de classe brésilien serait principalement basé sur des lignes socio-économiques et non raciales (d'une manière similaire à d'autres anciennes colonies portugaises ). A l'inverse, les personnes classées dans les recensements comme noires, brunes (" pardo ") ou indigènes ont des indicateurs sociaux défavorisés par rapport à la population blanche. [17] [18]
Le concept de métissage est lié aux concepts de différence raciale. Comme le suggèrent les différentes connotations et étymologies de métissage et de métissage , les définitions de la race , du "mélange des races" et de la multiracialité ont divergé à l'échelle mondiale et historique , en fonction de l'évolution des circonstances sociales et des perceptions culturelles. Les métis sont des personnes d'ascendance mixte blanche et indigène, généralement amérindienne , qui ne s'identifient pas comme peuples indigènes ou amérindiens . Au Canada, cependant, les Métis , qui ont également une ascendance en partie amérindienne et en partie blanche, souvent canadienne-française, se sont identifiés comme un groupe ethnique et sont reconnus constitutionnellementpeuples autochtones .
Les différences entre les termes et les mots apparentés qui englobent les aspects du mélange racial montrent l'impact de différents facteurs historiques et culturels conduisant à des interprétations sociales changeantes de la race et de l'ethnicité. Ainsi le comte de Montlosier , en exil pendant la Révolution française , assimile la différence de classe dans la France du XVIIIe siècle à la différence raciale. Empruntant le discours de Boulainvilliers sur la « race nordique » comme étant l'aristocratie française qui envahissait la plébéienne « gauloise », il montra son mépris pour la classe sociale la plus basse , le Tiers État , la qualifiant de « cette nouvelle personne née d'esclaves… un mélange de toutes les races et de tous les temps".[citation nécessaire ]
Histoire étymologique
Le métissage vient du latin miscere , "mélanger" et du genre , "genre". [19] Le mot a été inventé aux États-Unis en 1863 dans une brochure de canular anonyme, et l' étymologie du mot est liée aux conflits politiques pendant la guerre civile américaine sur l' abolition de l' esclavage et sur la ségrégation raciale des Afro-Américains . La référence au genre a été faite pour souligner les différences biologiques soi-disant distinctes entre les blancs et les non-blancs, bien que tous les humains appartiennent au même genre , Homo, et la même espèce , Homo sapiens .
Le mot a été inventé dans une brochure de propagande anonyme publiée à New York en décembre 1863, pendant la guerre de Sécession . La brochure s'intitulait le métissage : la théorie du mélange des races, appliquée à l'homme blanc et au nègre américain . [20] Il prétendait préconiser les mariages mixtes de Blancs et de Noirs jusqu'à ce qu'ils soient indistinctement mélangés, comme un objectif souhaitable et affirmait en outre que c'était l'objectif du Parti républicain . Le pamphlet était un canular, concocté par les démocratesde discréditer les républicains en leur imputant des opinions alors radicales qui heurtaient l'attitude de la grande majorité des Blancs, y compris ceux qui s'opposaient à l'esclavage. La question du métissage, soulevée par les opposants à Abraham Lincoln , figurait en bonne place dans la campagne électorale de 1864.
La brochure et ses variantes ont été largement réimprimées dans le Nord et le Sud par les démocrates et les confédérés. Ce n'est qu'en novembre 1864, après que Lincoln eut remporté les élections, que la brochure fut exposée aux États-Unis comme un canular. Il a été écrit par David Goodman Croly , rédacteur en chef du New York World , un journal du Parti démocrate, et George Wakeman, un journaliste du World . À ce moment-là, le mot métissage était entré dans le langage courant de l'époque en tant que mot à la mode populaire dans le discours politique et social.
Avant la publication de Miscegenation , les termes racial intermixing et amalgamation , ce dernier emprunté à la métallurgie , étaient utilisés comme termes généraux pour désigner le mélange génétique ethnique et racial. L'utilisation contemporaine de la métaphore de la fusion était celle de la vision privée de Ralph Waldo Emerson en 1845 de l'Amérique comme un creuset ethnique et racial, une variation sur le concept du creuset . [21] Les opinions aux États-Unis sur l'opportunité d'un tel mélange, y compris celle entre les protestants blancs et les immigrants catholiques irlandais , étaient divisées. Le terme métissage a été inventé pour se référer spécifiquement aux mariages mixtes de Noirs et de Blancs, dans le but de galvaniser l'opposition à la guerre.
Lois interdisant le métissage
Des lois interdisant le « mélange racial » ont été appliquées dans certains États américains jusqu'en 1967 (mais elles étaient toujours en vigueur dans certains États jusqu'en 2000), [22] dans l'Allemagne nazie (les lois de Nuremberg ) de 1935 à 1945, et en Afrique du Sud à l' époque de l' apartheid (1949-1985). Toutes ces lois interdisaient principalement le mariage entre personnes appartenant à des groupes ethniquement ou racialement différents, ce qui était appelé « fusion » ou « métissage » aux États-Unis. Les lois de l'Allemagne nazie et les lois de nombreux États américains, ainsi que les lois en Afrique du Sud, interdisaient également les relations sexuelles entre ces personnes.
Aux États-Unis, diverses lois étatiques interdisaient les mariages entre Blancs et Noirs , et dans de nombreux États, elles interdisaient également les mariages entre Blancs et Amérindiens ainsi que les mariages entre Blancs et Asiatiques . [23] Aux États-Unis, de telles lois étaient connues sous le nom de lois anti-métissage . De 1913 à 1948, 30 des 48 États d'alors ont appliqué de telles lois. [24] Bien qu'un « amendement anti-métissage » à la Constitution des États-Unis ait été proposé en 1871, en 1912-1913 et de nouveau en 1928, [25] [26] aucune loi nationale contre les mariages racialement mixtes n'a jamais été promulguée. En 1967, leLa Cour suprême des États-Unis a statué à l'unanimité dans Loving v. Virginia que les lois anti-métissage sont inconstitutionnelles . Avec cette décision, ces lois n'étaient plus en vigueur dans les 16 autres États qui les avaient encore.
L'interdiction nazie des relations sexuelles et des mariages interraciaux a été promulguée en septembre 1935 dans le cadre des lois de Nuremberg , la Gesetz zum Schutze des deutschen Blutes und der deutschen Ehre (Loi pour la protection du sang allemand et de l'honneur allemand). Les lois de Nuremberg classaient les Juifs comme une race, et elles interdisaient également les relations sexuelles extraconjugales et les mariages entre des personnes classées comme « aryennes » et des personnes classées comme « non-aryennes ». Les violations de ces lois ont été condamnées comme Rassenschande (lit. "race-disgrace/race-shame") et ils pourraient être punis d'emprisonnement (généralement suivi d'une déportation vers un camp de concentration) et ils pourraient même être punis de mort.
La loi sur l'interdiction des mariages mixtes en Afrique du Sud, promulguée en 1949, interdisait les mariages mixtes entre membres de différents groupes raciaux, y compris les mariages mixtes entre Blancs et non-Blancs. La loi sur l'immoralité , promulguée en 1950, a également érigé en infraction pénale le fait pour une personne blanche d'avoir des relations sexuelles avec une personne appartenant à une race différente. Ces deux lois ont été abrogées en 1985.
Histoire du mélange ethnoracial et attitudes envers le métissage
Afrique
L'Afrique a une longue histoire de mélange avec les non-Africains depuis la préhistoire. Le reflux eurasien qui s'est produit à l'époque préhistorique a vu une énorme migration du Levant entrer dans la région et ces migrants se sont mélangés aux Africains indigènes. Des signes de cette migration peuvent être trouvés parmi les habitants de la Corne de l'Afrique et du Soudan . [27] L' Afrique dans l'Antiquité a également une longue histoire de mélange interracial avec des explorateurs, commerçants et soldats arabes et européens masculins ayant des relations sexuelles avec des femmes noires africaines et les prenant pour épouses . Les Arabes ont joué un grand rôle dans la traite négrière africaine et contrairement auxtraite négrière transatlantique la plupart des esclaves noirs africains dans la traite négrière arabe étaient des femmes. La plupart d'entre elles ont été utilisées comme esclaves sexuelles par les hommes arabes et certaines ont même été prises comme épouses. [28]
Sir Richard Francis Burton écrit, lors de son expédition en Afrique, à propos des relations entre les femmes noires et les hommes blancs : « Les femmes sont bien disposées envers les étrangers de teint clair, apparemment avec la permission de leurs maris. Il existe plusieurs populations mulâtres à travers l'Afrique, principalement le résultat de relations interraciales entre des hommes arabes et européens et des femmes noires. En Afrique du Sud, il existe de grandes communautés mulâtres comme les Métis et les Griqua formées par des colons blancs prenant des femmes africaines indigènes. En Namibie, il existe une communauté appelée Rehoboth Basters formée par le mariage interracial d' hommes hollandais / allemands et de femmes africaines noires.
Dans l'ancienne Afrique portugaise (maintenant connue sous le nom d' Angola , de Mozambique et de Cap-Vert ), le mélange racial entre les Portugais blancs et les Africains noirs était assez courant, en particulier au Cap-Vert où la majorité de la population est d'origine mixte.
Il y a eu des cas enregistrés de marchands et d'ouvriers chinois prenant des femmes africaines dans toute l'Afrique, car de nombreux travailleurs chinois ont été employés pour construire des chemins de fer et d'autres projets d'infrastructure en Afrique. Ces groupes de travail étaient entièrement composés d'hommes et très peu de femmes chinoises venaient en Afrique.
En Afrique de l'Ouest, en particulier au Nigeria, il existe de nombreux cas d'hommes non africains prenant des femmes africaines. Beaucoup de leurs descendants ont acquis des positions de premier plan en Afrique. Le capitaine d'aviation Jerry John Rawlings , qui avait un père écossais et une mère ghanéenne noire, est devenu président du Ghana. Jean Ping , fils d'un commerçant chinois et d'une mère noire gabonaise, est devenu vice-premier ministre ainsi que ministre des Affaires étrangères du Gabon et a été président de la Commission de l' Union africaine de 2009 à 2012. Le président du Botswana , Ian Khama , est le fils du premier président du Botswana, Seretse Khama , et d'un étudiant britannique blanc,Ruth Williams Khama . Nicolas Grunitzky , qui était le fils d'un père allemand blanc et d'une mère togolaise , est devenu le deuxième président du Togo après un coup d'État .
Les hommes indiens , qui ont longtemps été commerçants en Afrique de l'Est , se sont parfois mariés avec des femmes africaines locales. L' Empire britannique a amené de nombreux travailleurs indiens en Afrique de l'Est pour construire le chemin de fer de l' Ouganda . Les Indiens ont finalement peuplé l'Afrique du Sud, le Kenya , l' Ouganda , la Tanzanie , le Malawi , le Rwanda , la Zambie , le Zimbabwe et le Zaïre en petit nombre. Ces unions interraciales étaient pour la plupart des mariages unilatéraux entre des hommes indiens et des femmes d'Afrique de l'Est. [29]
Maurice
À la fin du 19e et au début du 20e siècle, les hommes chinois à Maurice ont épousé des femmes indiennes en raison du manque de femmes chinoises et du nombre plus élevé de femmes indiennes sur l'île. [30] [31] Initialement, la perspective de relations avec les femmes indiennes était peu attrayante pour les migrants chinois de sexe masculin. Cependant, en raison du manque de femmes chinoises entrant dans le pays, les hommes chinois ont finalement établi des unions sexuelles avec des femmes indiennes. [32] Une situation similaire s'est produite en Guyane , où l'idée de relations sexuelles avec des femmes indiennes était initialement peu attrayante pour les migrants chinois. Finalement, leurs attitudes ont également changé et les hommes chinois ont établi des relations sexuelles avec des femmes indiennes. [33]Le recensement de 1921 à Maurice a compté que les femmes indiennes avaient un total de 148 enfants engendrés par des hommes chinois. [34] [35] [36] Ces Chinois étaient pour la plupart des commerçants. [37]
Congo
Au cours des années 1970, une demande accrue de cuivre et de cobalt a attiré des investissements japonais dans la région sud-est riche en minéraux de la province du Katanga . Sur une période de 10 ans, plus de 1 000 mineurs japonais se sont installés dans la région, confinés dans un camp strictement réservé aux hommes. Arrivés sans famille ni épouse, les hommes recherchaient souvent une interaction sociale en dehors des limites de leurs camps. En quête d'intimité avec le sexe opposé, aboutissant à la cohabitation, les hommes se sont ouvertement engagés dans des rencontres interracialeset les relations, une pratique adoptée par la société locale. En conséquence, un certain nombre de mineurs japonais ont engendré des enfants avec des femmes congolaises autochtones. Cependant, la plupart des enfants métis issus de ces unions sont décédés peu de temps après la naissance. De nombreux témoignages de la population locale suggèrent que les nourrissons ont été empoisonnés par un médecin et une infirmière japonais travaillant à l'hôpital minier local. Par la suite, les circonstances auraient fait honte aux mineurs car la plupart d'entre eux avaient déjà des familles dans leur Japon natal. La pratique a forcé de nombreuses mères indigènes katangaises à cacher leurs enfants en ne se présentant pas à l'hôpital pour accoucher.
Aujourd'hui, une cinquantaine d'Afro-japonais ont formé une association de survivants de l' infanticide katangais . L'organisation a engagé un avocat pour demander une enquête formelle sur les meurtres. Le groupe a soumis une enquête officielle aux gouvernements congolais et japonais , en vain. Les problèmes spécifiques à ce groupe incluent l'absence de documentation de leurs naissances, car le fait de ne pas être né à l'hôpital local leur a épargné la vie. Le nombre total de survivants est inconnu. [38]
Réunion
La majorité de la population réunionnaise est définie comme métisse. Au cours des 350 dernières années, divers groupes ethniques ( africains , chinois, anglais , français , indiens gujarati , Indiens tamouls ) sont arrivés et se sont installés sur l'île. Il y a eu des métis sur l'île depuis sa première habitation permanente en 1665. La population autochtone Kaf a un large éventail d'ascendance provenant des peuples coloniaux indiens et chinois. Ils descendent également d'esclaves africains amenés de pays comme le Mozambique , la Guinée , le Sénégal , Madagascar , la Tanzanieet la Zambie à l'île.
La plupart de la population des Créoles réunionnais qui sont d'ascendance mixte et constituent la majorité de la population. Les unions mixtes entre hommes européens et hommes chinois avec des femmes africaines, indiennes, chinoises et malgaches étaient également courantes. En 2005, une étude génétique sur les personnes racialement mélangées de la Réunion a trouvé ce qui suit. Pour l' ADN maternel ( mitochondrial ), les haplogroupes sont indiens (44 %), asiatiques de l'Est (27 %), européens/moyen-orientaux (19 %) ou africains (10 %). Les lignées indiennes sont M2 , M6 et U2i , celles d' Asie de l' Est sont E1 , D5a , M7c et F(E1 et M7c ne se trouvent également qu'en Asie du Sud-Est et à Madagascar), les européens/moyen-orientaux sont U2e , T1 , J , H et I , et les africains sont L1b1 , L2a1 , L3b et L3e1 . [39]
Pour l' ADN paternel ( chromosome Y ), les haplogroupes sont européens/moyen-orientaux (85 %) ou est-asiatiques (15 %). Les lignées européennes sont R1b et I , celle du Moyen-Orient E1b1b1c (anciennement E3b3) (également présente en Afrique du Nord-Est) et celles d'Asie de l'Est sont R1a (présentes dans de nombreuses régions du monde, y compris l'Europe et l'Asie centrale et méridionale, mais la a été trouvée en Asie) et O3 . [39] [ besoin d'un devis pour vérifier ]
Madagascar
Il y avait des mélanges fréquents entre les populations de langue austronésienne et bantoue de Madagascar. Un grand nombre de Malgaches aujourd'hui sont le résultat d'un mélange entre Austronésiens et Africains. Cela est particulièrement évident chez les Mikea , qui sont également la dernière population malgache connue à pratiquer encore un mode de vie de chasseur-cueilleur. Dans l'étude "The Dual Origin of the Malagasy in Island Southeast Asia and East Africa: Evidence from Maternal and Paternal Lineages" montre que l'origine maternelle bantoue est de 38% et paternelle de 51% tandis que l'origine paternelle de l'Asie du Sud-Est est de 34% et maternelle 62%. [40] [41] [42] Dans l'étude des malgaches, l'ADN autosomique montre le groupe ethnique des montagnards comme Merinasont presque un mélange égal d'origine sud-est asiatique et bantoue, tandis que le groupe ethnique côtier a un mélange bantou beaucoup plus élevé dans son ADN autosomique, ce qui suggère qu'il s'agit d'un mélange de nouveaux migrants bantous et du groupe ethnique montagnard déjà établi. Les estimations du maximum de vraisemblance privilégient un scénario dans lequel Madagascar a été colonisée il y a environ 1200 ans par un très petit groupe de femmes d'environ 30. [43] Le peuple malgache a existé à travers des mariages mixtes entre la petite population fondatrice. [ citation nécessaire ]
Les mariages entre hommes chinois et femmes malgaches n'étaient pas rares. [44] Plusieurs milliers d' hommes cantonais se sont mariés et ont cohabité avec des femmes malgaches. 98% des Chinois ont tracé leur origine de Guangdong - plus précisément, le district cantonais de Shunde. Par exemple, le recensement de 1954 a trouvé 1 111 unions sino-malgaches « irrégulières » et 125 légitimes, c'est-à-dire légalement mariées. Les enfants étaient enregistrés par leurs mères sous un nom malgache. [ clarification nécessaire ] Les mariages mixtes entre les hommes français et les femmes malgaches autochtones n'étaient pas rares non plus. [ citation nécessaire ]
Ouganda
Le thème des Ougandais métis continue de refaire surface, dans l'espace public, avec le nombre croissant d'Ougandais multiraciaux ( Multiracial Ugandans in Uganda ).
Amérique du Nord
Canada
Le Canada n'avait pas de lois explicites contre le mariage mixte, mais l'anti-métissage était souvent appliqué par différentes lois et confirmé par la Cour suprême du Canada comme valide. Velma Demerson , par exemple, a été emprisonnée en 1939 pour avoir porté l'enfant d'un père chinois ; elle a été jugée « incorrigible » en vertu de la loi sur les refuges pour femmes et a subi des expériences physiques en prison pour découvrir les causes de son comportement. [45]
En fin de compte, un régime informel et extra-légal a permis de réduire au minimum le tabou social du métissage (Walker, 1997 ; Backhouse, 1999 ; Walker, 2000). Et, de 1855 jusqu'aux années 1960, le Canada a choisi ses immigrants sur la base de leur catégorisation raciale plutôt que sur les mérites individuels du demandeur, la préférence étant donnée aux immigrants d'origine nord-européenne (en particulier britannique, scandinave et française) plutôt que les autres. appelées "races noires et asiatiques", et parfois sur les races d'Europe centrale et méridionale.
On peut soutenir que les diverses manifestations canadiennes de la Loi sur les Indiens fédérale ont été conçues pour réglementer les relations conjugales interraciales (dans ce cas, autochtones et non autochtones) et la catégorisation des enfants métis.
Le Ku Klux Klan canadien a brûlé des croix lors d'un rassemblement à Moose Jaw , en Saskatchewan, pour décourager les mariages mixtes, et en 1930, il a été enrôlé à Oakville , en Ontario , pour intimider Isabella Jones et Ira Junius Johnson afin qu'ils ne se marient pas.
États-Unis
Au début du XIXe siècle, le planteur quaker Zephaniah Kingsley publia une brochure , qui défendait le métissage, la brochure fut réimprimée trois fois. Selon lui, les enfants métis sont en meilleure santé et plus beaux. Il a également affirmé être marié à une esclave qu'il a achetée à Cuba à l'âge de 13 ans , bien que le mariage n'ait pas eu lieu aux États-Unis, et il n'y a aucune preuve de cela autre que la déclaration de Kingsley. Il a finalement été contraint de quitter les États-Unis et de s'installer dans la plantation Mayorasgo de Koka en Haïti (aujourd'hui République dominicaine ).
Le tabou historique entourant les relations blancs-noirs entre les Blancs américains peut être considéré comme une conséquence historique de l'oppression et de la ségrégation raciale des Afro-Américains. [46] [47] Dans de nombreux États américains, le mariage interracial était déjà illégal lorsque le terme métissage a été inventé en 1863. (Avant cela, on l'appelait "fusion".) Les premières lois interdisant le mariage interracial ont été introduites à la fin du XVIIe siècle. dans les colonies esclavagistes de Virginie (1691) et du Maryland (1692). Plus tard, ces lois se sont également étendues aux colonies et aux États où l'esclavage n'existait pas.
En 1918, il y a eu une controverse considérable en Arizona lorsqu'un fermier indien d'origine asiatique BK Singh a épousé la fille de seize ans d'un de ses locataires blancs. [48] Pendant et après l'esclavage, la plupart des blancs américains considéraient le mariage interracial entre blancs et noirs comme tabou. Cependant, pendant l'esclavage, de nombreux hommes et femmes blancs américains ont conçu des enfants avec des partenaires noirs. Certains enfants ont été libérés par leurs pères esclavagistes ou achetés pour être émancipés si le père n'en était pas le propriétaire. La plupart des descendants métis ont fusionné dans le groupe ethnique afro-américain à l' époque de Jim Crow .
Initialement, les Philippins américains étaient considérés comme blancs et n'étaient pas exclus du mariage interracial, avec des cas documentés de mariage interracial d'hommes philippins et de femmes blanches en Louisiane et à Washington, DC Cependant, à la fin du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle en Californie, les Philippins étaient exclus. d'épouser des femmes blanches à travers une série d'affaires judiciaires qui ont redéfini leur interprétation raciale en vertu de la loi. Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, les militaires philippins en Californie ont dû voyager avec leurs fiancées blanches au Nouveau-Mexique pour pouvoir se marier. [49]
La recherche génétique suggère que la majorité des Noirs américains ont des ancêtres européens. [50] [51] [52] Après la guerre civile et l' abolition de l'esclavage en 1865, le mariage des Américains blancs et noirs a continué à être tabou, en particulier dans les anciens États esclavagistes.
Le Motion Picture Production Code de 1930, également connu sous le nom de Hays Code , indiquait explicitement que la représentation du « métissage ... est interdite ». [53] Une stratégie importante destinée à décourager le mariage d'Américains blancs et d'Américains d'ascendance partiellement africaine était la promulgation de la théorie de la goutte unique , selon laquelle toute personne ayant une ascendance africaine connue, même éloignée, doit être considérée comme noire. Cette définition de la noirceur a été codée dans les lois anti-métissage de divers États américains, comme le Racial Integrity Act de Virginie en 1924 . Les plaignants dans Loving c. Virginia , Mildred Jeter et Richard Loving est devenu le couple interracial historiquement le plus important aux États-Unis grâce à leur lutte juridique contre cet acte.
Tout au long de l'histoire américaine, il y a eu des mélanges fréquents entre les Amérindiens et les Africains noirs. Lorsque les Amérindiens ont envahi la colonie européenne de Jamestown, en Virginie, en 1622, ils ont tué les Européens mais ont pris les esclaves africains en captivité, les intégrant progressivement. Des relations interraciales ont eu lieu entre les Afro-Américains et les membres d'autres tribus le long des États côtiers. Pendant la période de transition où les Africains sont devenus la principale race réduite en esclavage, les Amérindiens ont parfois été réduits en esclavage avec eux. Les Africains et les Amérindiens travaillaient ensemble, certains se sont même mariés et ont eu des enfants mixtes. La relation entre les Africains et les Amérindiens était considérée comme une menace pour les Européens et les Européens-Américains, qui tentaient activement de diviser les Amérindiens et les Africains et de les opposer les uns aux autres. [55]
Au cours du XVIIIe siècle, certaines femmes amérindiennes se sont tournées vers des hommes africains libérés ou en fuite en raison d'un déclin important de la population masculine dans les villages amérindiens. Dans le même temps, la première population d'esclaves en Amérique était disproportionnellement masculine. Les archives montrent que certaines femmes amérindiennes ont acheté des hommes africains comme esclaves. À l'insu des vendeurs européens, les femmes libérèrent et marièrent les hommes dans leur tribu. Certains hommes africains ont choisi les femmes amérindiennes comme partenaires parce que leurs enfants seraient libres, car le statut de l'enfant suivait celui de la mère. Les hommes pouvaient se marier dans certaines des tribus matrilinéaires et être acceptés, car leurs enfants étaient toujours considérés comme appartenant au peuple de la mère. À mesure que l'expansion européenne augmentait dans le Sud-Est, les mariages africains et amérindiens sont devenus plus nombreux. [56]
Du milieu du XIXe au milieu du XXe siècle, de nombreux Noirs et Mexicains ethniques se sont mariés dans la basse vallée du Rio Grande, dans le sud du Texas (principalement dans les comtés de Cameron et de Hidalgo). Dans le comté de Cameron, 38% des Noirs étaient mariés de manière interraciale (7/18 familles) tandis que dans le comté de Hidalgo, le nombre était de 72% (18/25 familles). Ces deux comtés avaient les taux les plus élevés de mariages interraciaux impliquant au moins un conjoint noir aux États-Unis. La grande majorité de ces mariages impliquaient des hommes noirs épousant des femmes mexicaines ethniques ou des Tejanas de première génération (femmes nées au Texas d'origine mexicaine). Étant donné que les Mexicains ethniques étaient considérés comme blancs par les autorités texanes et le gouvernement américain, de tels mariages étaient une violation des lois anti-métissage de l'État. Encore,il n'y a aucune preuve que quiconque dans le sud du Texas ait été poursuivi pour avoir enfreint cette loi. Les taux de cette dynamique de mariage interracial remontent au moment où les hommes noirs se sont installés dans la basse vallée du Rio Grande après la fin de la guerre civile. Ils se sont mariés dans des familles ethniques mexicaines et ont rejoint d'autres Noirs qui ont trouvé refuge à la frontière américano-mexicaine.[57]
Du milieu du XIXe siècle au XXe siècle, les quelques centaines de milliers d'hommes chinois qui ont migré étaient presque entièrement d'origine cantonaise, principalement de Taishan. Les lois anti-métissage interdisaient aux hommes chinois d'épouser des femmes blanches dans de nombreux États. [58] Après la proclamation d'émancipation , de nombreux mariages mixtes dans certains États n'ont pas été enregistrés et, historiquement, les hommes d'origine chinoise ont épousé des femmes afro-américaines dans des proportions supérieures à leur nombre total de mariages en raison du fait que peu de femmes d'origine chinoise ont vécu aux États-Unis. . Après la proclamation d'émancipation, de nombreux Américains d'origine chinoise ont migré vers le sud des États-Unis , en particulier vers l' Arkansas, pour travailler dans les plantations. Par exemple, en 1880, le dixième recensement américain de la Louisiane à lui seul a noté que 57% de tous les mariages interracials étaient entre des hommes chinois et des femmes noires et 43% d'entre eux étaient entre des hommes chinois et des femmes blanches. [59] Entre 20 et 30 pour cent des Chinois qui vivaient dans le Mississippi ont épousé des femmes noires avant 1940. [60] Dans une étude génétique de 199 échantillons d'hommes afro-américains, l'un d'entre eux appartenait à l'haplogroupe O2a (ou 0,5%) [61] Il a été découvert par l'historien Henry Louis Gates, Jr dans la mini-série documentaire African American Lives que l' astronaute de la NASA Mae Jemisona un mélange génétique important (au-dessus de 10 %) d' Asie de l'Est . Gates a émis l'hypothèse que les mariages/relations entre les travailleurs chinois migrants et les esclaves ou ex-esclaves noirs ou afro-américains au cours du XIXe siècle pourraient avoir contribué à sa constitution ethnique et génétique. Au milieu des années 1850, 70 à 150 Chinois vivaient à New York et 11 d'entre eux épousaient des Irlandaises. En 1906, le New York Times (6 août) a rapporté que 300 femmes blanches (irlandaises américaines) étaient mariées à des hommes chinois à New York, avec beaucoup plus cohabitant. En 1900, sur la base des recherches de Liang, sur les 120 000 hommes de plus de 20 communautés chinoises aux États-Unis, il estimait qu'un homme chinois (cantonais) sur vingt était marié à une femme blanche. [62]Dans le recensement des années 1960, 3 500 hommes chinois étaient mariés à des femmes blanches et 2 900 femmes chinoises mariées à des hommes blancs. [63]
Avant la guerre civile, des accusations de soutien au métissage étaient couramment portées contre les abolitionnistes par les défenseurs de l'esclavage. Après la guerre, des accusations similaires ont été portées contre les défenseurs de l'égalité des droits des Afro-Américains par les ségrégationnistes blancs . Selon ces accusations, ils auraient secrètement comploté la destruction de la race blanche par la promotion du métissage . Dans les années 1950, les ségrégationnistes ont prétendu qu'un complot communiste visant à promouvoir le métissage afin d'accélérer la prise de contrôle des États-Unis était financé par le gouvernement de l'Union soviétique. En 1957, les ségrégationnistes ont cité le canular antisémite A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century comme une source de preuve qui a prouvé la validité supposée de ces allégations.
Les caricatures anti-fusion, telles que celles publiées par Edward William Clay , étaient des « fantasmes anti-abolitionnistes minutieusement exagérés » dans lesquels les Noirs et les Blancs étaient décrits comme « en train de fraterniser et de socialiser sur un pied d'égalité ». [64] [65] [66] Jerome B. Holgate « s A Sojourn dans la ville de amalgamation "peint un avenir dans lequel la fusion sexuelle était à la mode." [66]
L'Université Bob Jones a interdit les rencontres interraciales jusqu'en 2000. [67]
Les Asiatiques ont été spécifiquement inclus dans les lois anti-métissage de certains États. La Californie a continué d'interdire les mariages asiatiques/blancs jusqu'à la décision Perez v. Sharp en 1948.
Aux États-Unis, ségrégationnistes, y compris des temps modernes identité chrétienne des groupes, ont affirmé que plusieurs passages dans la Bible , [69] , comme les histoires de Pinhas (voir Phineas Sacerdoce ), la malédiction et la marque de Caïn , et la malédiction de Ham , doit être compris comme faisant référence au métissage et ils croient aussi que certains versets de la Bible l'interdisent expressément.
Le mariage interracial est de plus en plus accepté aux États-Unis depuis le mouvement des droits civiques . [70] L'approbation des mariages mixtes dans les sondages nationaux est passée de 4 % en 1958, 20 % en 1968 (au moment de la décision SCOTUS), 36 % en 1978, à 48 % en 1991, 65 % en 2002, 77 % en 2007, et 86 % en 2011. [71] [72] L'Américain le plus notable de race mixte est l'ancien président des États-Unis , Barack Obama , qui est le produit d'un mariage mixte entre un père noir et un blanc mère. Néanmoins, pas plus tard qu'en 2009, un juge de paix de Louisiane a refusé de délivrer une licence de mariage à un couple interracial, justifiant la décision par des motifs de préoccupation pour les futurs enfants que le couple pourrait avoir. [73]
Hawaï
La majorité des Chinois d'Hawaï étaient des migrants cantonais du Guangdong, mais une minorité d'entre eux étaient des Hakka. Si toutes les personnes d'ascendance chinoise à Hawaï (y compris les Chinois-Hawaïens) sont incluses, elles forment environ 1/3 de la population totale d'Hawaï. Un grand pourcentage d'immigrants chinois ont épousé des Hawaïens d'origine hawaïenne, européenne et multiraciale. Les mariages mixtes ont commencé à décliner dans les années 1920. [74] [75] Les Hawaïens portugais et d'autres d'ascendance européenne ont souvent épousé des immigrants chinois et leurs descendants. [76] [77]Les actes de naissance et les données de recensement des années 1930 démontrent que les enfants de parents mixtes étaient souvent classés uniquement selon l'identité ethnique de leur père, comme avec 38 naissances enregistrées entre 1932 et 1933 en luso-chinois où le père était chinois, reflétant les attitudes américaines sur pureté raciale. [74] Une grande quantité de mélanges a eu lieu entre la communauté chinoise à Hawaï, avec de nombreux Chinois-Hawaïens épousant des personnes des communautés portugaise, espagnole, hawaïenne, caucasienne-hawaïenne et d'autres. [78] [79] [80] [81] Des mariages mixtes à Hawaï ont également été documentés entre les individus chinois et portoricains, portugais, japonais, grecs et métis. [82] [83]
Mexique
Au Mexique, le concept de mestizaje (ou l'amalgame culturel et racial ) fait partie intégrante de l'identité du pays. Bien que souvent considéré comme un mélange d'indigènes et d'espagnols, le Mexique a connu un mélange notable d'Africains indigènes et noirs depuis l'ère coloniale. L'Église catholique ne s'est jamais opposée aux mariages interraciaux, bien que les individus aient dû déclarer leur classification raciale dans le registre matrimonial paroissial.
Cuba
120 000 coolies cantonais (tous des hommes) sont entrés à Cuba sous contrat pour 80 ans. La plupart ne se sont pas mariés, mais Hung Hui (1975:80) déclare qu'il y avait une fréquence d'activité sexuelle entre les femmes noires et les coolies cantonais. Selon Osberg, (1965 :69) les Chinois achetaient souvent des femmes esclaves et les libéraient, expressément pour le mariage. Aux XIXe et XXe siècles, des hommes chinois (cantonais) se sont livrés à des relations sexuelles avec des femmes cubaines blanches et noires, et de telles relations sont nés de nombreux enfants. (Pour un modèle antillais britannique de rétention culturelle chinoise par la procréation avec des femmes noires, voir Patterson, 322-31). [84] Dans les années 1920, 30 000 cantonais supplémentaires et de petits groupes de Japonais sont arrivés ; les deux immigrations étaient exclusivement masculines, et il y avait un mélange rapide avec les populations blanches, noires et mulâtres.[85] [86] Dans le World Factbook de la CIA : Cuba (15 mai 2008), les auteurs ont estimé à 114 240 personnes d'ascendance sino-cubaine et seulement 300 chinois purs. [87] Dans l'étude de l'origine génétique, du mélange et de l'asymétrie dans les lignées humaines maternelles et paternelles à Cuba, 35 SNP du chromosome Y ont été typés chez les 132 individus masculins de l'échantillon cubain. L'étude n'a inclus aucune personne d'ascendance chinoise. Tous les échantillons étaient des Cubains blancs et noirs. 2 des 132 échantillons masculins appartiennent à l'haplogroupe O2 d'Asie de l'Est, que l'on trouve à des fréquences significatives chez les Cantonais. [88]
El Salvador
Au Salvador, les mariages mixtes étaient fréquents entre les esclaves mâles noirs et les femmes amérindiennes. Beaucoup de ces esclaves se sont mariés avec des femmes amérindiennes dans l'espoir de gagner la liberté (si ce n'est pour eux-mêmes, alors leur progéniture). De nombreux enfants métis africains et amérindiens sont issus de ces unions. Les Espagnols ont essayé d'empêcher de telles unions afro-amérindiennes, mais le mélange des deux groupes n'a pas pu être empêché. Les esclaves ont continué à poursuivre les indigènes dans la perspective de la liberté. D'après le livre de Richard Price Maroon Societies(1979), il est documenté qu'à l'époque coloniale, les femmes amérindiennes préféraient épouser des hommes noirs plutôt que des hommes amérindiens, et que les hommes noirs préféraient épouser des femmes amérindiennes plutôt que des femmes noires afin que leurs enfants naissent libres. Price a cité cela à partir d'une histoire de HH Bancroft publiée en 1877 se référant au Mexique colonial. La population africaine d'El Salvador vivait dans des circonstances similaires, et le mélange entre hommes noirs et femmes autochtones était courant à l'époque coloniale. [89]
Guatemala
Il y a eu de nombreux cas où des hommes noirs et mulâtres se sont mariés avec des Mayas et d'autres femmes indigènes du Guatemala. Ces unions étaient plus courantes dans certaines régions que dans d'autres. À Escuintla (appelée Escuintepeque à l'époque), les indigènes de langue pipil qui vivaient à des altitudes plus élevées avaient tendance à vivre loin des terres chaudes côtières des basses terres où les hommes noirs et mulâtres étaient concentrés. Pourtant, à mesure que le nombre d'hommes noirs augmentait au cours de cette période (1671-1701), une tendance s'est développée pour eux à épouser des femmes autochtones. À Zapotitlán (également connu sous le nom de Suchitepéquez), les Espagnols étaient proportionnellement plus importants qu'à Escuintla. Ainsi, la population africaine plus petite avait moins d'opportunités pour l' endogamieet disparaissait au début du XVIIIe siècle lorsque les Noirs épousaient des Mayas et que les mulâtres épousaient des métis et des Espagnols de rang inférieur. Enfin à Guazacapán, un district de Pipil à 10 % d'étrangers, les mariages religieux entre Mayas ou Pipils et mulâtres libres étaient rares. Mais les hommes noirs épousaient fréquemment des femmes mayas dans le cadre d'unions informelles, ce qui entraînait une importante population de métis ici et dans toute la région côtière. Dans la Vallée de las Vacas, les esclaves noirs se sont également mariés avec des femmes mayas. [90]
Costa Rica
Les Chinois du Costa Rica sont issus de migrants de sexe masculin cantonais. Les Chinois purs ne représentent que 1% de la population costaricienne mais, selon Jacqueline M. Newman , jusqu'à dix pour cent des habitants du Costa Rica sont chinois, si l'on compte les personnes qui sont chinoises, mariées à un chinois, ou de origine chinoise mixte. [91] La plupart des immigrants chinois depuis lors ont été cantonais, mais au cours des dernières décennies du 20ème siècle, un certain nombre d'immigrants sont également venus de Taiwan. Beaucoup d'hommes sont venus seuls travailler, ont épousé des Costaricaines et parlent cantonais. Cependant, la majorité des descendants des premiers immigrants chinois ne parlent plus le cantonais et se considèrent comme des Costaricains à part entière. [92]Ils ont épousé des femmes ticanes (qui sont un mélange d'européennes, castizos, métisses, indiennes, noires). [93] Un Tican est aussi une personne blanche avec une petite quantité de sang non blanc, comme Castizo. Le recensement de 1989 montre qu'environ 98% des Costariciens étaient soit blancs, castizos, métis, 80% étant blancs ou castizos. Jusqu'aux années 1940, les hommes constituaient la grande majorité de la communauté chinoise du Costa Rica. [94] Les hommes constituaient la majorité de la communauté chinoise d'origine au Mexique et ils ont épousé des femmes mexicaines. [95]
De nombreux Africains au Costa Rica se sont également mariés avec d'autres races. À la fin de l'époque coloniale de Cartago, 33 % des 182 hommes africains mariés et 7 % des femmes africaines mariées étaient mariés à un conjoint d'une autre race. Les chiffres étaient encore plus frappants à San José où 55% des 134 hommes africains mariés et 35% des 65 femmes africaines mariées étaient mariés à une autre race (principalement des métis). À Cartago même, deux hommes africains ont été dénombrés avec des femmes espagnoles et trois avec des femmes indiennes, tandis que neuf femmes africaines étaient mariées à des hommes indiens. Les Espagnols cohabitaient rarement avec les femmes mulâtres, sauf dans la région des parcours de bétail bordant le Nicaragua au nord. Là aussi, deux femmes espagnoles vivaient avec des hommes africains. [96]
Jamaïque et Haïti
En Haïti , il existe un pourcentage important au sein de la minorité d' origine asiatique . Haïti abrite également des peuples marabouts, moitié indiens et moitié africains qui descendent d'immigrants indiens venus d'autres pays des Caraïbes, tels que la Martinique et la Guadeloupe et les descendants d'esclaves africains. La plupart des descendants actuels du Marabou d'origine sont des produits d' ascendance hypodescente et, par la suite, principalement d'ascendance africaine.
Le pays compte également une importante population haïtienne japonaise et chinoise . L'un des Afro-Asiatiques les plus remarquables du pays est le regretté peintre Edouard Wah, né d'un père immigrant chinois et d'une mère afro-haïtienne.
Lorsque les femmes noires et indiennes avaient des enfants avec des hommes chinois, les enfants étaient appelés chaina raial en anglais jamaïcain. [97] La communauté chinoise en Jamaïque a pu se consolider parce qu'une ouverture à épouser des femmes indiennes était présente chez les Chinois car les femmes chinoises étaient rares. [98] Le partage des femmes était moins fréquent chez les Indiens de la Jamaïque selon Verene A. Shepherd . [99] Le petit nombre de femmes indiennes a été disputé entre les hommes indiens et a conduit à une augmentation du nombre de meurtres d'épouses par des hommes indiens. [100] Les femmes indiennes représentaient 11 pour cent du nombre annuel de migrants indiens sous contrat de 1845 à 1847 en Jamaïque. [101]Des milliers d'hommes chinois et indiens ont épousé des femmes jamaïcaines locales. L'étude "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: Contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow" montre l'haplogroupe paternel chinois O-M175 à une fréquence de 3,8% chez les Jamaïcains locaux (Jamaïcains non chinois) dont l'Indien H-M69 (0,6%) et L-M20 (0,6%) chez les Jamaïcains locaux. [102] Parmi les Afro-Asiatiques les plus notables du pays se trouvent les chanteurs de reggae Sean Paul , Tami Chynn et Diana King .
Amérique du Sud
Amérique latine et Caraïbes
Environ 300 000 coolies et migrants cantonais (presque tous des hommes) ont migré entre 1849 et 1874 vers l'Amérique latine ; beaucoup d'entre eux se sont mariés et ont cohabité avec la population noire, métisse et européenne de Cuba, du Pérou, de la Guyane et de Trinidad.
En outre, les sociétés latino-américaines ont également connu une croissance des mariages sanctionnés par l'Église et de droit commun entre les Africains et les non-couleurs. [96]
Argentine
À Buenos Aires en 1810, seulement 2,2 pour cent des hommes africains et 2,5 pour cent des femmes africaines étaient mariés à des non-colorés (blancs). En 1827, les chiffres sont passés à 3,0 % pour les hommes et 6,0 % pour les femmes. Le mélange racial s'est encore accru à mesure que de plus en plus d'hommes africains ont commencé à s'enrôler dans l'armée. Entre 1810 et 1820, seuls 19,9% des hommes africains sont enrôlés dans l'armée. Entre 1850 et 1860, ce nombre est passé à 51,1 %. Cela a conduit à un déséquilibre sexuel entre les hommes et les femmes africains en Argentine. Les unions entre femmes africaines et hommes non colorés sont devenues plus courantes à la suite de l'immigration italienne massive dans le pays. Cela a conduit un éditorialiste africain à dire en plaisantant que, compte tenu du déséquilibre sexuel dans la communauté, les femmes noires qui "ne pouvaient pas obtenir de pain devraient se contenter de pâtes". [96]
Bolivie
Pendant la période coloniale, de nombreux Noirs se sont souvent mariés avec la population autochtone (principalement Aymara ). Le résultat de ces relations fut le métissage entre les deux cultures (Aymara et Afro-Bolivienne ).
Après la réforme agraire bolivienne de 1953, les Noirs (comme les peuples autochtones) ont migré de leurs villages agricoles vers les villes de La Paz , Cochabamba et Santa Cruz à la recherche de meilleures opportunités d'éducation et d'emploi. En lien avec cela, des individus noirs ont commencé à se marier avec des personnes de couleur de peau plus claire telles que les blancos (blancs) et les métis. Cela a été fait comme un moyen de mieux s'intégrer pour eux-mêmes, et en particulier leurs enfants, dans la société bolivienne. [103]
Brésil
Le Brésil est le pays le plus peuplé d'Amérique latine. C'est aussi l'un des plus diversifiés sur le plan racial. Selon l'Institut brésilien de géographie et de statistique, la composition raciale du Brésil est de 48 % de blancs (92 millions) de 44 % de pardo (83 millions) de 7 % de noirs (13 millions) de 0,50 % de jaunes (1,1 million). [104] L'accent mis sur la couleur de la peau plutôt que sur l'origine raciale est controversé. En raison de sa configuration raciale, le Brésil est souvent comparé aux États-Unis en termes de relations raciales. Cependant, la présence d'une population mixte si forte au Brésil est citée comme l'une de ses principales différences avec les États-Unis. [105] La censure la plus récente au Brésil démontre qu'une partie considérable de la population n'est pas blanche. [104] Le pardoncatégorie désigne une composition mixte ou multiraciale. Cependant, il pourrait être encore décomposé en termes basés sur les principales influences raciales sur le phénotype d' un individu .
La collecte systématique de données sur la race au Brésil est considérée comme l'une des plus vastes de la région. Cependant, l' Institut brésilien de géographie et de statistique (IBGE) a été continuellement critiqué pour sa méthode de mesure de la démographie raciale. Une distinction importante est que le Brésil collecte des données basées sur la couleur et non sur la race. Ainsi, la catégorie « pardo » ne se rapporte pas réellement à un phénotype spécifique, seulement à la couleur de l'individu. Cela signifie qu'une personne « pardo » peut aller d'une personne d'ascendance blanche et amérindienne à une personne d'ascendance africaine et portugaise. Il y a une différence évidente entre ces deux phénotypesqui ne sont pas représentés par le terme générique de « pardo ». De nombreuses études ont porté sur l'importance de l'accent mis par l'IBGE sur la couleur plutôt que sur la race. Ellis Monk a publié des recherches illustrant les implications de ce cadre racial sur la société brésilienne d'un point de vue sociologique. Dans une discussion sur la façon dont le gouvernement a mis en œuvre une distinction dichotomique entre les blancs et les non-blancs (races mixtes, avec les Noirs et les Amérindiens), il déclare : « Le gouvernement brésilien, à partir des années 1990, a même mené des campagnes exhortant les Brésiliens à se considérer comme , comme noir ou blanc sur la base de l'ascendance africaine, quelle que soit la couleur de leur peau". [106]Ce développement s'est poursuivi car il avait obtenu le soutien des Afro-Brésiliens et des mouvements de conscience noire qui souhaitaient se démarquer en tant que race distincte à la peau noire, similaire au cadre racial utilisé aux États-Unis [106]
Les premiers stades des colonies portugaises sur le territoire brésilien ont favorisé un mélange entre les colonisateurs portugais, les tribus indigènes et les esclaves africains. Cette composition était courante dans la plupart des colonies d'Amérique latine. En ce sens, plusieurs sociologues ont comparé l'expérience coloniale brésilienne à celle du Mexique. Depuis la publication de l' ouvrage fondateur de Gilberto Freyre Casa-Grande & Senzala , les sociologues ont considéré le Brésil comme ayant une histoire coloniale unique où les relations interraciales étaient acceptées sans préjugés religieux ou de classe. Freyre dit :
Le sentiment de nationalité chez le Brésilien a été profondément affecté par le fait que le système féodal ne permettait pas ici un État tout à fait dominant ou une Église toute-puissante, ainsi que par la circonstance de métissage tel qu'il se pratiquait sous l'aile de ce système et en même temps pratiqué contre lui, rendant ainsi moins facile l'identification absolue de la classe dominante avec la souche européenne pure ou quasi pure des principaux conquérants, les Portugais. Le résultat est un sentiment national tempéré par une sympathie pour l'étranger qui est si large qu'elle devient, pratiquement, l'universalisme. Il serait, en effet, impossible de concevoir un peuple en marche vers la social-démocratie qui, au lieu d'être universel dans ses tendances, soit étroitement exclusif ou ethnocentrique.
For Freyre, lack of sexual prejudices incentivized racial mixing that produces the wide genetic variety we see today. Portuguese men married and had children with indigenous and African women. The societal consequences of this are that a marked diversification of skin colors occur, blurring the racial ancestry of those considered to have 'mixed race. The increase of influence of one race over another in producing a Brazilian phenotype happened in stages. For example, immigration policy loosened in the late 1940s resulting in the influx of multiple European communities that are now considered to have 'whitened' Brazilian communities in the north and northeast.[107]
British West Indies
Miscegenation has never been illegal in the British West Indies, and the populations of Guyana,[108][109][110] Belize,[111][112][113] Jamaica,[33][114] and Trinidad[115][116][117][118][119] are today among the world's most diverse.
Peru
About 100,000 Chinese coolies (almost all males) from 1849 to 1874 migrated to Peru and intermarried with Peruvian women of Mestizo, European, Amerindian, European/Mestizo, African and mulatto origin. Thus, many Peruvian Chinese today are of mixed Chinese, Spanish, African, or Amerindian ancestry. One estimate for the Chinese-Peruvian mixture is about 1.3–1.6 million. Asian Peruvians are estimated to be 3% of the population, but one source places the number of citizens with some Chinese ancestry at 4.2 million, which equates to 15% of the country's total population.[120] In Peru, non-Chinese women married the mostly male Chinese coolies.[121]
Among the Chinese migrants who went to Peru and Cuba there were almost no women.[122][123] Some Peruvian women married Chinese male migrants.[124][125][126][127][128] Chinese men formed relationshiop with both Peruvian women and Afro-Peruvian women during their labor as coolies. Chinese men had contact with Peruvian women in cities, there they formed relationships had mixed-race babies. These women came from Andean and coastal areas and did not originally come from the cities, in the haciendas on the coast in rural areas, native young women of indígenas (native) and serranas (mountain) origin from the Andes mountains would come to work, these Andean native women were favored as marital partners by Chinese men over Africans. Matchmakers arranged marriages of Chinese men to indígenas and serranas young women.[129] There was a racist reaction by some Peruvians to the marriages of Peruvian women and Chinese men.[130] When native Peruvian women (cholas and natives, Indias, indígenas) and Chinese men had mixed children, the children were called injertos. When these injertos became a components of Peruvian society, Chinese men then sought out girls of injertas origins as marriage partners. Children born to black mothers were not called injertos.[131] Lower class Peruvians established sexual unions or marriages with the Chinese men and some black and Indian women "bred" with the Chinese according to Alfredo Sachettí, who claimed the mixing was causing the Chinese to suffer from "progressive degeneration", in Casa Grande highland Indian women and Chinese men participated in communal "mass marriages" with each other, arranged when highland women were brought by a Chinese matchmaker after receiving a down payment.[132][133]
In Peru and Cuba some Indian (Native American), mulatto, black, and white women married or had sexual relations with Chinese men, with marriages of mulatto, black, and white woman being reported by the Cuba Commission Report and in Peru it was reported by the New York Times that Peruvian black and Indian (Native) women married Chinese men to their own advantage and to the disadvantage of the men since they dominated and "subjugated" the Chinese men despite the fact that the labor contract was annulled by the marriage, reversing the roles in marriage with the Peruvian woman holding marital power, ruling the family and making the Chinese men slavish, docile, "servile", "submissive" and "feminine" and commanding them around, reporting that "Now and then ... he [the Chinese man] becomes enamored of the charms of some sombre-hued chola (Native Indian and mestiza woman) or samba (a mixed black woman), and is converted and joins the Church, so that may enter the bonds of wedlock with the dusky señorita."[134] Chinese men were sought out as husbands and considered a "catch" by the "dusky damsels" (Peruvian women) because they were viewed as a "model husband, hard-working, affectionate, faithful and obedient" and "handy to have in the house", the Peruvian women became the "better half" instead of the "weaker vessel" and would command their Chinese husbands "around in fine style" instead of treating them equally, while the labor contract of the Chinese coolie would be nullified by the marriage, the Peruvian wife viewed the nullification merely as the previous "master" handing over authority over the Chinese man to her as she became his "mistress", keeping him in "servitude" to her, speedily ending any complaints and suppositions by the Chinese men that they would have any power in the marriage.[135]
Asia
Inter-ethnic marriage in Southeast Asia dates back to the spread of Indian culture, Hinduism and Buddhism to the region. From the 1st century onwards, mostly male traders and merchants from the Indian subcontinent frequently intermarried with the local female populations in Cambodia, Burma, Champa, Central Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Malay Archipelago. Many Indianized kingdoms arose in Southeast Asia during the Middle Ages.[136]
From the 9th century onwards, a large number of mostly male Arab traders from the Middle East settled down in the Malay Peninsula and Malay Archipelago, and they intermarried with the local Malay, Indonesian and female populations in the islands later called the Philippines. This contributed to the spread of Islam in Southeast Asia.[137] From the 14th to the 17th centuries, many Chinese, Indian and Arab traders settled down within the maritime kingdoms of Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local female populations. This tradition continued among Portuguese traders who also intermarried with the local populations.[138] In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese people also travelled to Southeast Asia and intermarried with the local women there.[139]
From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[140] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter, they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦 Po-ssu-fu or Bosifu).[141] Some scholars did not differentiate between Persian and Arab, and some say that the Chinese called all women coming from the Persian Gulf "Persian Women".[142]
The exact number of Amerasians in Vietnam are not known. The U.S soldiers stationed in Vietnam had relationships with locals females, many of the women had origins from clubs, brothels and pubs. The American Embassy once reported there were less than a 1,000 Amerasians. A report by the South Vietnamese Senate Subcommittee suggested there are 15,000 to 20,000 children of mixed American and Vietnamese blood, but this figure was considered low.[143] Congress estimated 20,000 to 30,000 Amerasians by 1975 lived in Vietnam.[144] According to Amerasians Without Borders, they estimated about 25,000 to 30,000 Vietnamese Amerasians were born from American first participation in Vietnam in 1962, and lasted until 1975.[145] Although during the Operation Babylift it was estimated at 23,000.[146]
In the 19th century and early 20th century, there was a network of small numbers of Chinese and Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and India, in what was then known as the "Yellow Slave Traffic". There was also a network of prostitutes from continental Europe being trafficked to India, Ceylon, Singapore, China and Japan at around the same time, in what was then known as the "White Slave Traffic".[147]
In 1905, it was reported that that many Russian women were raped which resulted in many Japanese troops were infected with venereal disease.[148] During World War II, Japanese soldiers engaged in war rape during their invasions across East Asia and Southeast Asia. Some Indo Dutch women, captured in Dutch colonies in Asia, were forced into sexual slavery.[149] More than 20,000 Indonesian women[150] and nearly 300 Dutch women were so treated.[151] A estimated 1000 Timor women and girls who also used as sexual slaves.[152] Melanesian women from New Guinea were also used as comfort women by the Japanese military and as well married Japanese, forming a small number of mixed Japanese-Papuan women born to Japanese fathers and Papuan mothers.[153]
The Indonesian invasion of East Timor and West Papua caused the murders of approximately 300,000 to 400,000 West Papuans and many thousands of women raped.[154]
Sex tourism has emerged in the late 20th century as a controversial aspect of Western tourism and globalization. Sex tourism is typically undertaken internationally by tourists from wealthier countries. Author Nils Ringdal alleges that three out of four men between the ages of 20 and 50 who have visited Asia or Africa have paid for sex.[155]
Female sex tourism also emerged in the late 20th century in Bali. Tens of thousands of single women throng the beaches of Bali in Indonesia every year. For decades, young Balinese men have taken advantage of the louche and laid-back atmosphere to find love and lucre from female tourists—Japanese, European and Australian for the most part—who by all accounts seem perfectly happy with the arrangement.[156]
Central Asia
Today Central Asians are formed from mixture of various peoples, such as Mongols, Turks, Iranians. The Mongol conquest of Central Asia in the 13th century resulted in the mass killings of the Iranian-speaking people and Indo-Europeans population of the region, their culture and languages being superseded by that of the Mongolian-Turkic peoples. The remaining surviving population intermarried with invaders.[157][158][159][160] Genetic shows a mixture of East Asian and Caucasian ancestry in all Central Asian people.[161][162]
Afghanistan
Genetic analysis of the Hazara people indicate partial Mongolian ancestry.[163] Invading Mongols and Turco-Mongols mixed with the local Iranian population, forming a distinct group. Mongols settled in what is now Afghanistan and mixed with native populations who spoke Persian. A second wave of mostly Chagatai Mongols came from Central Asia and were followed by other Mongolic groups, associated with the Ilkhanate and the Timurids, all of whom settled in Hazarajat and mixed with the local, mostly Persian-speaking population, forming a distinct group.
The analysis also detected Sub-Saharan African lineages in both the paternal and maternal ancestry of Hazara. Among the Hazaras there are 7.5% of African mtDNA haplogroup L with 5.1% of African Y-DNA B.[164][165] The origin and date of when these admixture occurred are unknown but was believed to have been during the slave trades in Afghanistan.[165]
China
Intermarriage was initially discouraged by the Tang dynasty. In 836 Lu Chun was appointed as governor of Canton, he was disgusted to find Chinese living with foreigners and intermarriage between Chinese and foreigners. Lu enforced separation, banning interracial marriages, and made it illegal for foreigners to own property. Lu Chun believed his principles were just and upright.[166] The 836 law specifically banned Chinese from forming relationships with "dark peoples" or "people of colour", which was used to describe foreigners, such as "Iranians, Sogdians, Arabs, Indians, Malays, Sumatrans", among others.[167][168] The Song dynasty allowed third-generation immigrants with official titles to intermarry with Chinese imperial princesses.[169]
Iranian, Arab and Turkic women also occasionally migrated to China and mixed with Chinese.[169] From the tenth to twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Guangzhou (Canton), some of them in the tenth century like Mei Zhu in the harem of the Emperor Liu Chang, and in the twelfth century large numbers of Persian women lived there, noted for wearing multiple earrings and "quarrelsome dispositions".[140][170] Multiple women originating from the Persian Gulf lived in Guangzhou's foreign quarter; they were all called "Persian women" (波斯婦; Po-szu-fu or Bosifu).[171] Iranian female dancers were in demand in China during this period. During the Sui dynasty, ten young dancing girls were sent from Persia to China. During the Tang dynasty bars were often attended by Iranian or Sogdian waitresses who performed dances for clients.[166][172][173][174]
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (Wudai) (907–960), there are examples of Persian women marrying Chinese emperors. Some Chinese officials from the Song Dynasty era also married women from Dashi (Arabia).[175]
By the 14th century, the total population of Muslims in China had grown to 4 million.[176] After Mongol rule had been ended by the Ming dynasty in 1368, this led to a violent Chinese backlash against West and Central Asians. In order to contain the violence, both Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men of both sexes were required by Ming Code to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming Emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.[177][178][179]
Han women who married Hui men became Hui, and Han men who married Hui women also became Hui.[180][181][182]
Of the Han Chinese Li family in Quanzhou, Li Nu, the son of Li Lu, visited Hormuz in Persia in 1376, married a Persian or an Arab girl, and brought her back to Quanzhou. He then converted to Islam. Li Nu was the ancestor of the Ming Dynasty reformer Li Chih.[183][184][185]
After the Oghuz Turkmen Salars moved from Samarkand in Central Asia to Xunhua, Qinghai in the early Ming dynasty, they converted Tibetan women to Islam and the Tibetan women were taken as wives by Salar men. A Salar wedding ritual where grains and milk were scattered on a horse by the bride was influenced by Tibetans.[186] After they moved into northern Tibet, the Salars originally practiced the same Gedimu (Gedem) variant of Sunni Islam as the Hui people and adopted Hui practices like using the Hui Jingtang Jiaoyu Islamic education during the Ming dynasty which derived from Yuan dynasty Arabic and Persian primers. One of the Salar primers was called "Book of Diverse Studies" (雜學本本 Zaxue Benben) in Chinese. The version of Sunni Islam practiced by Salars was greatly impacted by Salars marrying with Hui who had settled in Xunhua. The Hui introduced new Naqshbandi Sufi orders like Jahriyya and Khafiyya to the Salars and eventually these Sufi orders led to sectarian violence involving Qing soldiers (Han, Tibetans and Mongols) and the Sufis which included the Chinese Muslims (Salars and Hui). Ma Laichi brought the Khafiyya Naqshbandi order to the Salars and the Salars followed the Flowered mosque order (花寺門宦) of the Khafiyya. He preached silent dhikr and simplified Qur'an readings bringing the Arabic text Mingsha jing (明沙經, 明沙勒, 明沙爾 Minshar jing) to China.[187]
The Kargan Tibetans, who live next to the Salar, have mostly become Muslim due to the Salars. The Salar oral tradition recalls that it was around 1370 in which they came from Samarkand to China.[188][189] The later Qing dynasty and Republic of China Salar General Han Youwen was born to a Tibetan woman named Ziliha (孜力哈) and a Salar father named Aema (阿额玛).[190][191][192]
Tibetan women were the original wives of the first Salars to arrive in the region as recorded in Salar oral history. The Tibetans agreed to let their Tibetan women marry Salar men after putting up several demands to accommodate cultural and religious differences. Hui and Salar intermarry due to cultural similarities and following the same Islamic religion. Older Salars married Tibetan women but younger Salars prefer marrying other Salars. Han and Salar mostly do not intermarry with each other unlike marriages of Tibetan women to Salar men. Salars however use Han surnames. Salar patrilineal clans are much more limited than Han patrilinial clans in how much they deal with culture, society or religion.[193][194] Salar men often marry a lot of non-Salar women and they took Tibetan women as wives after migrating to Xunhua according to historical accounts and folk histories. Salars almost exclusively took non-Salar women as wives like Tibetan women while never giving Salar women to non-Salar men in marriage except for Hui men who were allowed to marry Salar women. As a result, Salars are heavily mixed with other ethnicities.[195]
Salars in Qinghai live on both banks of the Yellow river, south and north, the northern ones are called Hualong or Bayan Salars while the southern ones are called Xunhua Salars. The region north of the Yellow river is a mix of discontinuous Salar and Tibetan villages while the region south of the yellow river is solidly Salar with no gaps in between, since Hui and Salars pushed the Tibetans on the south region out earlier. Tibetan women who converted to Islam were taken as wives on both banks of the river by Salar men. The term for maternal uncle (ajiu) is used for Tibetans by Salars since the Salars have maternal Tibetan ancestry. Tibetans witness Salar life passages in Kewa, a Salar village and Tibetan butter tea is consumed by Salars there as well. Other Tibetan cultural influences like Salar houses having four corners with a white stone on them became part of Salar culture as long as they were not prohibited by Islam. Hui people started assimilating and intermarrying with Salars in Xunhua after migrating there from Hezhou in Gansu due to the Chinese Ming dynasty ruling the Xunhua Salars after 1370 and Hezhou officials governed Xunhua. Many Salars with the Ma surname appear to be of Hui descent since a lot of Salars now have the Ma surname while in the beginning the majority of Salars had the Han surname. Some example of Hezhou Hui who became Salars are the Chenjia (Chen family) and Majia (Ma family) villages in Altiuli where the Chen and Ma families are Salars who admit their Hui ancestry. Marriage ceremonies, funerals, birth rites and prayer were shared by both Salar and Hui as they intermarriaed and shared the same religion since more and more Hui moved into the Salar areas on both banks of the Yellow river. Many Hui married Salars and eventually it became far more popular for Hui and Salar to intermarry due to both being Muslims than to non-Muslim Han, Mongols and Tibetans. The Salar language and culture however was highly impacted in the 14th-16th centuries in their original ethnogenesis by marriage with Mongol and Tibetan non-Muslims with many loanwords and grammatical influence by Mongol and Tibetan in their language. Salars were multilingual in Salar and Mongol and then in Chinese and Tibetan as they trade extensively in the Ming, Qing and Republic of China periods on the yellow river in Ningxia and Lanzhou in Gansu.[196]
Salars and Tibetans both use the term maternal uncle (ajiu in Salar and Chinese, azhang in Tibetan) to refer to each other, referring to the fact that Salars are descendants of Tibetan women marrying Salar men. After using these terms they often repeat the historical account how Tibetan women were married by 2,000 Salar men who were the First Salars to migrate to Qinghai. These terms illustrate that Salars were viewed separately from the Hui by Tibetans. According to legend, the marriages between Tibetan women and Salar men came after a compromise between demands by a Tibetan chief and the Salar migrants. The Salar say Wimdo valley was ruled by a Tibetan and he demanded the Salars follow 4 rules in order to marry Tibetan women. He asked them to install on their houses's four corners Tibetan Buddhist prayer flags, to pray with Tibetan Buddhist prayer wheels with the Buddhist mantra om mani padma hum and to bow before statues of Buddha. The Salars refused those demands saying they did not recite mantras or bow to statues since they believed in only one creator god and were Muslims. They compromised on the flags in houses by putting stones on their houses' corners instead of Tibetan Buddhist prayer flags. Some Tibetans do not differentiate between Salar and Hui due to their Islamic religion. In 1996, Wimdo township only had one Salar because Tibetans whined about the Muslim call to prayer and a mosque built in the area in the early 1990s so they kicked out most of the Salars from the region. Salars were bilingual in Salar and Tibetan due to intermarriage with Tibetan women and trading. It is far less likely for a Tibetan to speak Salar.[197] Tibetan women in Xiahe also married Muslim men who came there as traders before the 1930s.[198]
In eastern Qinghai and Gansu there were cases of Tibetan women who stayed in their Buddhist Lamaist religion while marrying Chinese Muslim men and they would have different sons who would be Buddhist and Muslims, the Buddhist sons became Lamas while the other sons were Muslims. Hui and Tibetans married Salars.[199]
In the frontier districts of Sichuan, numerous half Chinese-Tibetans were found. Tibetan women were glad to marry Chinese traders and soldiers.[200] Some Chinese traders married Tibetan girls.[201] Traders and officials in ancient times were often forbidden to bring Chinese women with them to Tibet, so they tended to marry Tibetan women; the male offspring were considered Chinese and female offspring as Tibetan.[202][203][204] Special names were used for these children of Chinese fathers and Tibetan mothers.[205] They often assimilated into the Tibetan population.[206] Chinese and Nepalese in Tibet married Tibetan women.[207]
Chinese men also married Turkic Uyghur women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949. Sometimes poverty influenced Uyghur women to marry Chinese. These marriages were not recognized by local mullahs since Muslim women were not allowed to marry non-Muslim men under Islamic law. This did not stop the women because they enjoyed advantages, such as not being subject to certain taxes. Uyghur women married to the Chinese also did not have to wear a veil and they received their husband's property upon his death. These women were forbidden from being buried in Muslim graves. The children of Chinese men and Uyghur women were considered as Uyghur. Some Chinese soldiers had Uyghur women as temporary wives, and after the man's military service was up, the wife was left behind or sold, and if it was possible, sons were taken, and daughters were sold.[208]
After the Russian Civil War, a huge number of Russians settled in the Manchuria region of China. One Chinese scholar Zhang Jingsheng wrote essays in 1924 and 1925 in various Chinese journals praising the advantages of miscegenation between Russians and Chinese, saying that interracial sex would promote greater understandings between the two peoples, and produce children with the best advantages of both peoples.[209] Zhang argued that Russians were taller and had greater physical strength than the Han, but the Chinese were gentler and kinder than the Russians, and so intermarriage between the two peoples would ensure children with the advantages of both.[209] Zhang wrote that the Russians were a tough "hard" people while the Chinese had a softer physique and more compassion, and miscegenation between the two would only benefit both.[209] Zhang mentioned since 1918 about one million Russian women who had already married Chinese men and argued already the children born of these marriages had the strength and toughness of the Russians and the gentleness and kindness of the Chinese.[209] Zhang wrote what he ultimately wanted was an "Asia for Asians", and believed his plans for miscegenation were the best way of achieving this.[209] The South Korean historian Bong Inyoung wrote that Zhang's plans were based on a certain Social Darwinist thinking and a tendency to assign characteristics to various peoples in a way that might be considered objectionable today, but he was no racist as he did not see fair skin of the Russians as any reason why the Chinese should not marry them.[209]
European travellers noted that many Han Chinese in Xinjiang married Uyghur (who were called turki) women and had children with them. A Chinese was spotted with a "young" and "good looking" Uyghur wife and another Chinese left behind his Uyghur wife and child in Khotan.[210][211][212][213]
After 1950, some intermarriage between Han and Uyghur peoples continued. A Han married a Uyghur woman in 1966 and had three daughters with her, and other cases of intermarriage also continued.[214][215]
Ever since the 1960s, African students were allowed by the Chinese government to study in China as friendly relations with Africans and African-related people was important to CCP's "Third World" coalition. Many African male students began to intermingle with the local Chinese women. Relationships between black men and Chinese women often led to numerous clashes between Chinese and African students in the 1980s as well as grounds for arrest and deportation of African students. The Nanjing anti-African protests of 1988 were triggered by confrontations between Chinese and Africans. New rules and regulations were made in order to stop African men from consorting with Chinese women. Two African men who were escorting Chinese women on a Christmas Eve party were stopped at the gate and along with several other factors escalated. The Nanjing protests lasted from Christmas Eve of 1988 to January 1989. Many new rules were set after the protests ended, including one where black men could only have one Chinese girlfriend at a time whose visits were limited to the lounge area.[216]
There is a small but growing population of mixed marriages between male African (mostly Nigerian) traders and local Chinese women in the city of Guangzhou where it is estimated that in 2013 there are 400 African-Chinese families.[217] The rise in mixed marriages has not been without controversy. The state, fearing fraud marriages, has strictly regulated matters. In order to obtain government-issued identification (which is required to attend school), the children must be registered under the Chinese mother's family name. Many African fathers, fearing that in doing so, they would relinquish their parental rights, have instead chosen to not send their children to school. There are efforts to open an African-Chinese school but it would first require government authorization.[217]
Taiwan
During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia of 1661–1662 in which Chinese Ming loyalist forces commanded by Koxinga besieged and defeated the Dutch East India Company and conquered Taiwan, the Chinese took Dutch women and children prisoner. Koxinga took Hambroek's teenage daughter as a concubine,[218][219][220] and Dutch women were sold to Chinese soldiers to become their wives. In 1684 some of these Dutch wives were still captives of the Chinese.[221]
Some Dutch physical looks like auburn and red hair among people in regions of south Taiwan are a consequence of this episode of Dutch women becoming concubines to the Chinese commanders.[222]
Hong Kong
Many Tanka women conceived children with foreign men. Ernest John Eitel mentioned in 1889 how an important change had taken place among Eurasian girls, the offspring of illicit connections: instead of becoming concubines, they were commonly brought up respectably and married to Hong Kong Chinese husbands. Many Hong Kong born Eurasians were assimilated into the Hong Kong society by intermarriage with the Cantonese population. A good example of a Cantonese Eurasian is Nancy Kwan, a Hollywood sex symbol. Kwan was of Eurasian origin, born in 1939 in Hong Kong to a father who was a Cantonese architect and mother who is a model of British descent. The martial artist Bruce Lee had a Cantonese father and a Eurasian mother.
Ernest John Eitel controversially claimed that most "half caste" people in Hong Kong were descended exclusively from Europeans having a relationship with Tanka women. The theory that most of the Eurasian mixed race Hong Kong people are descended only from Tanka women and European men, and not ordinary Cantonese women, has been backed up by other researchers who pointed out that Tanka women freely consorted with foreigners due to the fact that they were not bound by the same Confucian traditions as the Cantonese, and having a relationship with a European man was advantageous for Tanka women, but Lethbridge criticized it as "a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community". Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, to support Ernest John Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans. The ordinary Cantonese women did not sleep with European men, thus the Eurasian population was formed mostly from Tanka and European admixture.[223][224][225][226]
They invaded Hongkong the moment the settlement was started, living at first on boats in the harbour with their numerous families, gradually settling on shore. They have maintained ever since almost a monopoly of the supply of pilots and ships' crews, of the fish trade and the cattle trade, but unfortunately also of the trade in girls and women. Strange to say, when the settlement was first started, it was estimated that some 2,000 of these Tan-ka people had flocked to Hongkong, but at the present time they are about the same number, a tendency having set in among them to settle on shore rather than on the water and to disavow their Tan-ka extraction in order to mix on equal terms with the mass of the Chinese community. The half-caste population in Hongkong was, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption into the mass of the Chinese residents of the Colony.[227]
South Asians have been living in Hong Kong throughout the colonial period, before the independence in 1947 into the nations of India and Pakistan. They migrated to Hong Kong and worked as police officers as well as army officers during colonial rule. 25,000 of the Muslims in Hong Kong trace their roots back to what is now Pakistan. Around half of them belong to 'local boy' families, Muslims of mixed Chinese and South Asian ancestry, descended from early Indian/Pakistani Muslim immigrants who took local Chinese wives and brought their children up as Muslims.[228][229]
Macao
The early Macanese ethnic group was formed from Portuguese men intermarrying with Malay, Japanese and Indian women.[230] The Portuguese encouraged Chinese migration to Macao, and most Macanese in Macao were formed from intermarriages between Portuguese and Chinese. In 1810, the total population of Macao was about 4,033, of which 1,172 were white men, 1,830 were white women, 425 were male slaves, and 606 were female slaves. In 1830, the population increased to 4,480 and the breakdown was 1,202 white men, 2,149 white women, 350 male slaves, and 779 female slaves. There is reason to speculate that large numbers of white women were involved in some forms of prostitution which would probably explain the abnormality in the ratio between men and women among the white population.[231]
Rarely did Chinese women marry Portuguese; initially, mostly Goans, Ceylonese (from today's Sri Lanka), Indochinese, Malay, and Japanese women were the wives of the Portuguese men in Macau.[232][233][234][235][236] Japanese girls would be purchased in Japan by Portuguese men.[237] Many Chinese became Macanese simply by converting to Catholicism, and had no ancestry from Portuguese, having assimilated into the Macanese people.[238] The majority of the early intermarriages of people from China with Portuguese were between Portuguese men and women of Tanka origin, who were considered the lowest class of people in China and had relations with Portuguese settlers and sailors, or low class Chinese women.[239][240][241] Western men were refused by high class Chinese women, who did not marry foreigners.[242] In fact, in those days, the matrimonial context of production was usually constituted by Chinese women of low socio-economic status who were married to or concubines of Portuguese or Macanese men. Very rarely did Chinese women of higher status agree to marry a Westerner. As Deolinda argues in one of her short stories, "even should they have wanted to do so out of romantic infatuation, they would not be allowed to. Macanese men and women also married with the Portuguese and Chinese; as a result, some Macanese became indistinguishable from the Chinese or Portuguese population. Because the majority of the Chinese population who migrated to Macao was Cantonese, Macao became a Cantonese speaking society, and other ethnic groups became fluent in Cantonese. Most Macanese had paternal Portuguese heritage until 1974."[240] It was in the 1980s that Macanese and Portuguese women began to marry men who defined themselves ethnically as Chinese, which resulted in many Macanese with Cantonese paternal ancestry.[242]
Literature in Macao was written about love affairs and marriage between the Tanka women and Portuguese men, like "A-Chan, A Tancareira", by Henrique de Senna Fernandes.[243][244][245]
After the handover of Macao to China in 1999 many Macanese migrated to other countries. Of the Portuguese and Macanese women who stayed in Macao, many married local Cantonese men, and so many Macanese also now have Cantonese paternal heritage. There are between 25,000 and 46,000 Macanese, but only 5,000–8,000 live in Macao, while most live in Latin America, the U.S., Portugal. Unlike the Macanese of Macao who are strictly of Chinese and Portuguese heritage, many Macanese living abroad have intermarried with the local population of the U.S. and Latin America and have only partial Macanese heritage.
India
The Indian subcontinent has a long history of inter-ethnic marriage dating back to ancient history. Various groups of people have been intermarrying for millennia in the Indian subcontinent, including speakers of the Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages.
In Goa, a Portuguese colony in India, during the late 16th century and 17th century, there was a community of over thousand Japanese slaves and traders, who were either Japanese Christians fleeing persecution in Japan,[246] or young Japanese women and girls brought or captured as sexual slaves by Portuguese traders and their South Asian lascar crew members from Japan.[247] In both cases, they often intermarried with the local population in Goa.[246] Some Portuguese also intermarried with local Goans prior to Goa's annexation by India, as well as with Goan emigres that settled in Portugal.
One example of an interracial liaison during colonial times involved Hyderabadi noblewoman Khair-un-Nissa and her relationship to Scottish official James Achilles Kirkpatrick.
The 600,000-strong Anglo-Indian community was formed by British and Indian relationships. Such relationships have had an influence on the arts. Lakmé, an opera by the Frenchman Léo Delibes, deals with the romantic relationship between the British officer Gérald and the daughter of a Hindu high priest Lakmé (Laxmi in Sanskrit). The novel "Two Leaves and a Bud" by Ananda depicts Indian laborer women in India being seduced by the British manager Reggie Hunt after he gives them bangles and nose rings.[248]
As British women began arriving in India in large numbers around the early to mid-19th century, mostly as family members of officers and soldiers, British men became less likely to marry Indian women. Intermarriage declined after the events of the Rebellion of 1857,[249] after which several anti-miscegenation laws were implemented.[250][251]
The stereotype of the "Indian rapist" occurred frequently in English literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This coincided with a period after the Indian Rebellion when the colonial government officially outlawed miscegenation, a decision which was influenced by the reports of rape supposedly committed by Indian rebels during the 1857 rebellion. These policies remained in effect until Indian independence in 1947.[252][253][254]
The 1883 Ilbert Bill, which would have granted Indian judges the right to judge British offenders, was opposed by many Britons in India on the grounds that Indian judges could not be trusted in dealing with cases involving British females, with miscegenation and ethnic tensions playing a large part in opposition to the bill.[255]
The stereotype of Indian males as rapists who targeted British women in India was critiqued by several novels such as E. M. Forster's A Passage to India (1924) and Paul Scott's The Jewel in the Crown (1966), both of which involve an Indian male being wrongly accused of raping a British female.[256] Some activists argued that these stereotypes were wrong because Indians had proven to be more receptive to women's rights and progress, with the University of Calcutta becoming one of the first universities to admit female graduates to its degree programmes in 1878, before any of the universities in Britain did.[257]
When Burma was ruled under the administration of British India, millions of Indians, mostly Muslims, migrated there. The small population of mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", often in a pejorative sense implying mixed race.[258]
In Assam, local Indians married several waves of Chinese migrants during the British colonial era, to the point where it became hard to physically differentiate Chinese in Assam from locals during the time of their internment during the 1962 war, and the majority of these Chinese in Assam were married to Indians, and some of these Indian women were deported to China with their husbands.[259][260][261][262][263][264][265][266][267][268]
In the 19th century, when the British Straits Settlement shipped Chinese convicts to be jailed in India, the Chinese men then settled in the Nilgiri mountains near Naduvattam after their release and married Tamil Paraiyan women, having mixed Chinese-Tamil children with them. They were documented by Edgar Thurston.[269][270] Paraiyan is also anglicized as "pariah".
Thurston described the colony of the Chinese men with their Tamil pariah wives and children: "Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of ' marriage ' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating coffee on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs."[271][272] Thurston further describe a specific family: "The father was a typical Chinaman, whose only grievance was that, in the process of conversion to Christianity, he had been obliged to 'cut him tail off.' The mother was a typical Tamil Pariah of dusky hue. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish tint of the father than to the dark tint of the mother; and the semimongol parentage was betrayed in the slant eyes, flat nose, and (in one case) conspicuously prominent cheek-bones."[273][274][275][276] Thurston's description of the Chinese-Tamil families were cited by others, one mentioned "an instance mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female"[277][278] A 1959 book described attempts made to find out what happened to the colony of mixed Chinese and Tamils.[279]
An increasing number of non-Tibetan Muslim men are marrying Ladakhi Tibetan Buddhist women in Ladakh.[280][281][282][283][284][285][286][287][288]
Pakistan
The Balti people of Baltistan in Pakistan and Kargil in India are descendants of Tibetan Buddhists who converted to the Noorbakshia sect of Islam. With the passage of time a large number converted to Shia Islam, and a few converted to Sunni Islam. Their Balti language is highly archaic and conservative and closer to Classical Tibetan than other Tibetan languages. The Balti are speakers of a conservative Tibetan dialect in northern Pakistan, Baltistant. Most other Tibetan dialects lost Classical Tibetan consonant clusters that are presreved in Balti. However DNA testing revealed that while Tibetan mtDNA makes up te majority of the Balti's female ancestry, the Balti paternal ancestry has foreign Near Eastern Y haplogroups of non-Tibetan origin.[289][290][291][292][293][294][295]
Sri Lanka
In Ceylon (present day Sri Lanka), interracial relationships between Dutch, British and Portuguese men and local women were common. The 65,000-strong Burgher community was formed by the interracial marriages of Dutch and Portuguese men with local Sinhalese and Tamil women. In addition to intermarriage, inter-ethnic prostitution in India was also fairly common at the time, when British officers would frequently visit Indian nautch dancers. In the mid-19th century, there were around 40,000 British soldiers but fewer than 2,000 British officials present in India.[296] Many British and other European officers had their own harems made up of Indian women similar to those the Nawabs and kings of India had. In the 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of women and girls from continental Europe were also trafficked into British India (and Ceylon), where they worked as prostitutes servicing both British soldiers and local Indian (and Ceylonese) men.[147][297][298]
Japan
Inter-ethnic marriage in Japan dates back to the 7th century, when Chinese and Korean immigrants began intermarrying with the local Japanese population. In the 1590s, over 50,000 Koreans were forcibly brought to Japan during Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea, where they intermarried with the local population. In the 16th and 17th centuries, around 58,000 Japanese travelled abroad, many of whom intermarried with the local women in Southeast Asia.[139] During the anti-Christian persecutions in 1596, many Japanese Christians fled to Macau and other Portuguese colonies such as Goa, where there was a community of Japanese slaves and traders by the early 17th century. Intermarriage with the local populations in these Portuguese colonies also took place.[246] Portuguese traders in Japan also intermarried with the local Christian women.[299]
From the 15th century, Chinese, Korean and other Far Eastern visitors frequented brothels in Japan.[300] This practice later continued among visitors from the "Western Regions", mainly European traders.[247] This began with the arrival of Portuguese ships to Japan in the 16th century. Portuguese visitors and their South Asian (and sometimes African) crewmembers often engaged in slavery in Japan, where they bought Japanese slaves who were then taken to Macau and other Portuguese colonies in Southeast Asia, the Americas,[247] and India.[246] Later European East India companies, including those of the Dutch and British, also engaged in prostitution in Japan.[301] Marriage and sexual relations between European merchants and Japanese women was usual during this period.[302]
Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Although the actual number of slaves is debated, the proportions on the number of slaves tends to be exaggerated by the Japanese as part of anti-Portuguese propaganda.[303] At least more than several hundreds of Japanese women were sold.[304] A large slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased hundreds of Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[305][306] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large numbers of hundreds Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proporations, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571.[307][308]
Japanese slave women were even sold as concubines to black African crewmembers, along with their European counterparts serving on Portuguese ships trading in Japan, mentioned by Luis Cerqueira, a Portuguese Jesuit, in a 1598 document.[309] Japanese slaves were brought by the Portuguese to Macau, where some of them not only ended up being enslaved to Portuguese, but as slaves to other slaves, with the Portuguese owning Malay and African slaves, who in turn owned Japanese slaves of their own.[310][311]
Karayuki-san, literally meaning "Ms. Gone Abroad", were Japanese women who traveled to or were trafficked to East Asia, Southeast Asia, Manchuria, Siberia and as far as San Francisco in the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century to work as prostitutes, courtesans and geisha.[312] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, there was a network of Japanese prostitutes being trafficked across Asia, in countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Singapore and British India, in what was then known as the 'Yellow Slave Traffic'.[313]
In the early part of the Shōwa era, Japanese governments executed a eugenic policy to limit the birth of children with inferior traits, as well as aiming to protect the life and health of mothers.[314] Family Center staff also attempted to discourage marriage between Japanese women and Korean men who had been recruited from the peninsula as laborers following its annexation by Japan in 1910. In 1942, a survey report argued that "the Korean laborers brought to Japan, where they have established permanent residency, are of the lower classes and therefore of inferior constitution ... By fathering children with Japanese women, these men could lower the caliber of the Yamato minzoku."
In 1928, journalist Shigenori Ikeda promoted 21 December as the blood-purity day (junketsu de) and sponsored free blood tests at the Tokyo Hygiene laboratory. By the early 1930s, detailed "eugenic marriage" questionnaires were printed or inserted in popular magazines for public consumption. Promoters like Ikeda were convinced that these marriage surveys would not only ensure the eugenic fitness of spouses but also help avoid class differences that could disrupt and even destroy marriage. The goal was to create a database of individuals and their entire households which would enable eugenicists to conduct in-depth surveys of any given family's genealogy.[315]
Historian S. Kuznetsov, dean of the Department of History of the Irkutsk State University, one of the first researchers of the topic, interviewed thousands of former internees and came to the following conclusion: What is more, romantic relations between Japanese internees and Russian women were not uncommon. For example, in the city of Kansk, Krasnoyarsk Krai, about 50 Japanese married locals and stayed. Today many Russian women married Japanese men, often for the benefit of long-term residence and work rights. Some of their mixed offspring stay in Japan while other's to Russia.[316]
To prevent venereal diseases and rape by Japanese soldiers and to provide comfort to soldiers and head off espionage, the Imperial Japanese Army established "comfort stations" in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere where around 200,000 women, mostly from Korea and China, were recruited or kidnapped by the Kempeitai or the Tokeitai as comfort women.[317][improper synthesis?]
One of the last eugenic measures of the Shōwa regime was taken by the Higashikuni government. On 19 August 1945, the Home Ministry ordered local government offices to establish a prostitution service for Allied soldiers to preserve the "purity" of the "Japanese race". The official declaration stated that: "Through the sacrifice of thousands of "Okichis" of the Shōwa era, we shall construct a dike to hold back the mad frenzy of the occupation troops and cultivate and preserve the purity of our race long into the future...."[318]
According to Peter Schrijvers in "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II",[319] rape "reflects a burning need to establish total dominance of the enemy". According to Xavier Guillaume, US soldiers' rape of Japanese women was "general practice". Schrijvers states regarding rapes on Okinawa that "The estimate of one Okinawan historian for the entire three-month period of the campaign exceeds 10,000. A figure that does not seem unlikely when one realizes that during the first 10 days of the occupation of Japan there were 1,336 reported cases of rape of Japanese women by American soldiers in Kanagawa prefecture alone".[319]
However, despite being told by the Japanese military that they would suffer rape, torture and murder at the hands of the Americans, Japanese civilians "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy."[320][321] According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned".[322]
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences.[323] Men or women of mixed ancestry, foreigners, and members of minority groups face discrimination in a variety of forms. In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not realistic.[324][325] In 2005, Japanese Minister Tarō Asō called Japan a "one-race" country.[326]
The Japanese public was thus astounded by the sight of some 45,000 so-called "pan pan girls" (prostitutes) fraternizing with American soldiers during the occupation.[327] In 1946, the 200 wives of U.S. officers landing in Japan to visit their husbands also had a similar impact when many of these reunited couples were seen walking hand in hand and kissing in public.[328] Both prostitution and marks of affection had been hidden from the public until then, and this "democratization of eroticism" was a source of surprise, curiosity, and even envy. The occupation set new relationship models for Japanese men and women: the practice of modern "dating" spread, and activities such as dancing, movies, and coffee were not limited to "pan pan girls" and American troops anymore and became popular among young Japanese couples.[329]
Korea
Inter-ethnic marriage in Korea dates back to the arrival of Muslims in Korea during the Middle Ages, when Persian and Turkic navigators, traders and slaves settled in Korea and married local Korean people. Some assimilation into Buddhism and Shamanism eventually took place, owing to Korea's geographical isolation from the Muslim world.[330]
There are several Korean clans that are descended from such intermarriages. For example, the Deoksu Jang clan, claiming some 30,000 Korean members, views Jang Sunnyong, a Central Asian who married a Korean female, as their ancestor.[331] Another clan, Gyeongju Seol, claiming at least 2,000 members in Korea, view a Central Asian (probably an Uyghur) named Seol Son as their ancestor.[332][333]
There are even cases of Korean kings marrying princesses from abroad. For example, the Korean text Samguk Yusa about the Gaya kingdom (it was absorbed by the kingdom of Silla later), indicate that in 48 AD, King Kim Suro of Gaya (the progenitor of the Gimhae Kim clan) took a princess (Princess Heo) from the "Ayuta nation" (which is the Korean name for the city of Ayodhya in North India) as his bride and queen. Princess Heo belonged to the Mishra royal family of Ayodhya. According to the Samguk Yusa, the princess had a dream about a heavenly fair handsome king from a far away land who was awaiting heaven's anointed ride. After Princess Heo had the dream, she asked her parents, the king and queen of Ayodhya, for permission to set out and seek the foreign prince, which the king and queen urged with the belief that God orchestrated the whole fate. That king was no other than King Kim Suro of the Korean Gaya kingdom.
6,423 Korean women married US military personnel as war brides during and immediately after the Korean War. The average number of Korean women marrying US military personnel each year was about 1,500 per year in the 1960s and 2,300 per year in the 1970s.[334] Since the beginning of the Korean War in 1950, Korean women have immigrated to the United States as the wives of American soldiers. Based on extensive oral interviews and archival research, Beyond the Shadow of the Camptowns tells the stories of these women, from their presumed association with U.S. military camptowns and prostitution to their struggles within the intercultural families they create in the United States.[335]
International marriages now make up 13% of all marriages in South Korea. Most of these marriages are unions between a Korean male and a foreign female[336] usually from China, Japan, Vietnam, the Philippines, United States, Mongolia, Thailand, or Russia. On the other hand, Korean females have married foreign males from Japan, China, the United States, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Philippines, and Nepal. Between 1990 and 2005, there have been 159,942 Korean males and 80,813 Korean females married to foreigners.[337][338]
South Korea is among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.[339] Koreans have traditionally valued unmixed blood as the most important feature of Korean identity. The term "Kosian", referring to someone who has a Korean father and a non-Korean mother, is considered offensive by some who prefer to identify themselves or their children as Korean.[340][341] Moreover, the Korean office of Amnesty International has claimed that the word "Kosian" represents racial discrimination.[342][343] Kosian children, like those of other mixed-race backgrounds in Korea, often face discrimination.[344]
Malaysia and Singapore
In West Malaysia and Singapore, the majority of inter-ethnic marriages are between Chinese and Indians. The offspring of such marriages are informally known as "Chindian", although the Malaysian government only classifies them by their father's ethnicity. As the majority of these intermarriages usually involve an Indian groom and Chinese bride, the majority of Chindians in Malaysia are usually classified as "Indian" by the Malaysian government. As for the Malays, who are predominantly Muslim, legal restrictions in Malaysia make it uncommon for them to intermarry with either the Indians, who are predominantly Hindu, or the Chinese, who are predominantly Buddhist and Taoist.[345] Non-Muslims are required to convert to Islam in order to marry Muslims. However, this has not entirely stopped intermarriage between the Malays and the Chinese and Indians. The Muslim Chinese community is small and has only a negligible impact on the socio-economy and demography of the region.
It is common for Arabs in Singapore and Malaysia to take local Malay and Jawi Peranakan wives, due to a common Islamic faith.[137] The Chitty people, in Singapore and the Malacca state of Malaysia, are a Tamil people with considerable Malay descent, which was due to the first Tamil settlers taking local wives, since they did not bring along any of their own women with them. According to government statistics, the population of Singapore as of September 2007 was 4.68 million, of whom multiracial people, including Chindians and Eurasians, formed 2.4%.
In the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, intermarriage is common between Chinese and native tribes such as the Murut and Dusun in Sabah, and the Iban and Bisaya in Sarawak. This has resulted in a potpourri of cultures in both states where many people claiming to be of native descent have some Chinese blood in them, and many Chinese have native blood in them. The offspring of these mixed marriages are called 'Sino-(name of tribe)', e.g. Sino-Dusun. Normally, if the father is Chinese, the offspring will adopt Chinese culture and if the father is native then native culture will be adopted, but this is not always the case. These Sino-natives are usually fluent in Malay and English. A smaller number are able to speak Chinese dialects and Mandarin, especially those who have received education in vernacular Chinese schools.
The Eurasians in West Malaysia and Singapore are descendants of Europeans and locals, mostly Portuguese or British colonial settlers who have taken local wives.
Myanmar (Burma)
Burmese Muslims are the descendants of Bengalis, Indian Muslims, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Pathans, Chinese Muslims and Malays who settled in Burma and married members of the local Burmese population as well as members of other Burmese ethnic groups such as the Rakhine, Shan, Karen, and Mon.[346][347]
The oldest Muslim group in Burma (Myanmar) are the Rohingya people, who some believe are descended from Bengalis who settled in Burma and married native females in Rakhine State after the 7th century, but this is just a theory. When Burma was ruled by the British India administration, millions of Indians, mostly Muslims, migrated there. The small group of people who are the mixed descendants of Indian males and local Burmese females are called "Zerbadees", a term which is frequently used in a pejorative way in order to imply that they are people of mixed race. The Panthays, a group of Chinese Muslims descended from West Asians and Central Asians, migrated from China and also intermarried with local Burmese females.[258]
In addition, Burma has an estimated 52,000 Anglo-Burmese people, descended from British and Burmese people. Anglo-Burmese people frequently intermarried with Anglo-Indian immigrants, who eventually assimilated into the Anglo-Burmese community.
The All India Digest stated that when a Chinese man wanted to marry a Burmese woman, he needed to prove that he previously adopted and was currently following the Burmese form of Buddhism because it was assumed that even though he was currently using a Burmese name, he was still practicing Chinese Buddhism. Since many Chinese in Burma gave themselves Burmese names but continued to practice Chinese Buddhism, the adoption of a Burmese name was not proof that he had adopted Burmese Buddhism, therefore, Chinese Buddhist customary law must be followed in such cases.[348]
Philippines
Historically, admixture has been an ever-present and pervasive phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples who are called Negritos (different from other australoid groups) which now form the country's aboriginal community. Some admixture may have occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[349]
A considerable number of the population in the town of Cainta, Rizal, are descended from Indian soldiers who mutinied against the British Indian Army when the British briefly occupied the Philippines in 1762–63. These Indian soldiers, called Sepoy, settled in towns and intermarried with native women. Cainta residents of Indian descent are very visible today, particularly in Barrio Dayap near Brgy. Sto Niño.
There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[350]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[137] Major Arab migration to the Philippines coincided with the spread of Islam in the region. Filipino-Muslim royal families from the Sultanate of Sulu and the Sultanate of Maguindanao claim Arab descent even going as far as claiming direct lineage from Muhammad.[351] Such intermarriage mostly took place around the Mindanao island area, but the arrival of Spanish Conquistadors to the Philippines abruptly halted the spread of Islam further north into the Philippines. Intermarriage with Spanish people later became more prevalent after the Philippines was colonized by the Spanish Empire.
When the Spanish colonized the Philippines, a significant portion of the Filipino population mixed with the Spanish. When the United States took the Philippines from Spain during the Spanish–American War, much intermixing of Americans, both white and black, took place on the island of Luzon where the US had a Naval Base and Air Force Base, even after the USA gave the Philippines independence after World War II. First children and descendants of the male Filipino population with Spanish surnames who intermarried with the white American female population may be considered Spanish mestizos. The descendants of Filipinos and Europeans are today known as mestizos, following the term used in other former Spanish colonies.
Much mixing with the Japanese also took place due to the war rapes of Filipina women during World War II. Today there is an increasing number of Japanese men marrying Filipina women and fathering children by them whose family remains behind in the Philippines and are financially supported by their Japanese fathers who make regular visits to the Philippines. Today mixed-race marriages have a mixed perception in the Philippines. Most urban centers like Manila and Cebu are more willing to accept interracial marriages than rural areas.
Vietnam
Much of the business conducted with foreign men in Southeast Asia was done by the local women, who engaged in both sexual and mercantile intercourse with foreign male traders. A Portuguese and Malay speaking Vietnamese woman who lived in Macao for an extensive period of time was the person who interpreted for the first diplomatic meeting between Cochin-China and a Dutch delegation, she served as an interpreter for three decades in the Cochin-China court with an old woman who had been married to three husbands, one Vietnamese and two Portuguese.[352][353][354] The cosmopolitan exchange was facilitated by the marriage of Vietnamese women to Portuguese merchants. Those Vietnamese woman were married to Portuguese men and lived in Macao which was how they became fluent in Malay and Portuguese.[355]
Alexander Hamilton said that "The Tonquiners used to be very desirous of having a brood of Europeans in their country, for which reason the greatest nobles thought it no shame or disgrace to marry their daughters to English and Dutch seamen, for the time they were to stay in Tonquin, and often presented their sons-in-law pretty handsomely at their departure, especially if they left their wives with child; but adultery was dangerous to the husband, for they are well versed in the art of poisoning."[356]
Europe
Germany
During the years which followed World War I, the French Army occupied the Rhineland, utilizing African soldiers amongst their forces. Their children were known as "Rhineland Bastards".
Beginning in 1933, the Nazis declared that the Jews were a group of people who were bound to form a unit by their close, so-called genetic (blood) ties, a unit which a non-Jew could never join or secede from. The Nazis declared that the influence of Jews was detrimental in Germany, in order to justify the discrimination and persecution which they were then subjecting Germany's Jews to. In order to be spared from the discrimination and persecution, a person needed to prove his or her affiliation with the Aryan race, as it was conceived by the Nazis.
It was paradoxical that neither genetic tests nor allegedly outwardly racial features in a person's physiognomy determined his or her racial affiliation, although the Nazis talked a lot about physiognomy, but only the records of the religious affiliations of a person's grandparents decided it. While a person's grandparents had previously been able to choose their religion, in the Nazi era, he or she would compulsorily be categorized as a Jew and persecuted, even if his or her grandparents had originally practiced Judaism but later converted to another religion, thus, if three or four grandparents had been enrolled as members of a Jewish congregation, their grandchildren would be considered Jews and persecuted, regardless of the fact that they were considered Jews according to the Halachah (roughly meaning: they were Jewish by birth from a Jewish mother or they were Jewish by conversion), apostates, irreligionists or Christians.
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 forbade marriages between persons who were considered racially superior, so-called Aryans, and persons who were considered racially inferior, so-called non-Aryans; these laws forbade all marriages in which at least one partner was a German citizen. Non-Aryans mostly consisted of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans who were of Jewish descent. The official definition of "Aryan" classified all non-Jewish Europeans as Aryans,[357] sexual relations between Aryans and non-Aryans now became punishable as Rassenschande (race defilement).[358]
Eventually, children—whenever they were born—within a mixed marriage, as well as children who were born as a result of extramarital mixed relationships before 31 July 1936, were considered Mischlinge or crossbreeds and discriminated against. However, children who were later born to mixed parents, parents who were not yet married when the Nuremberg Laws were passed, were considered Geltungsjuden and discriminated against, even if the parents had gotten married abroad or remained unmarried. Eventually, children who were enrolled in a Jewish congregation were also considered Geltungsjuden and discriminated against.
Geltungsjuden were subjected to varying degrees of forced labour in 1940, an order which was partially imposed on all Jewish-classified spouses, the only Jewish-classified spouses who were exempted from this order were Jewish-classified husbands and Jewish-classified wives who were taking care of their minor children. According to the documents, no mixed couples were ever exempted from persecution, this was especially the case with Jewish-classified spouses.[359]
Systematic deportations of Jewish Germans and Gentile Germans of Jewish descent started on 18 October 1941.[360] In fact, German Jews and German Gentiles of Jewish descent who were living in mixed marriages were mostly spared from deportation.[361] In the event that a mixed marriage ended with the death of the so-called Aryan spouse or the divorce of the Jewish-classified spouse, the Jewish-classified spouse who was residing within Germany was usually deported soon afterward, this was not the case if the couple still had minor children who were not considered Geltungsjuden.[362]
In March 1943, an attempt to deport the Berlin-based Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent who were living in non-privileged mixed marriages failed due to public protest by their in-laws who were of so-called Aryan kinship (see Rosenstraße protest). Also, the Aryan-classified husbands and the Mischling-classified children (starting at the age of 16) who were born as a result of their mixed marriages were taken for forced labour by the Organisation Todt, starting in the autumn of 1944.
The last attempt, undertaken in February/March 1945, ended because the extermination camps were already liberated. However, 2,600 people were deported to Theresienstadt from all over the Reich, most of them survived the last months of the war and lived to see their liberation.[363]
After the war began, the race defilement law was extended to all foreigners.[364] The Gestapo harshly persecuted sexual relations between Germans and workers from Eastern Europe on the grounds of "risk for the racial integrity of the German nation".[364] A decree dated on 7 December 1942 stated any "unauthorized sexual intercourse" would result in the death penalty.[365] Foreign workers who were brought to Nazi Germany were considered a threat to people of German blood.[366] Polish workers and Eastern Workers who had sexual relations with a German were punished with the death penalty.[367] During the war, hundreds of Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian men were executed for their relations with German women.[368][369]
Atina Grossman in her article in "October"[370] describes how until early 1945, abortions were illegal in Germany (except for medical and eugenic reasons), such as when doctors opened up and started performing abortions on rape victims. It was also typical for women to specify the reasons for their abortions. Many women who wanted to have abortions would claim that they had been raped by men who looked Asian or Mongolian. German women uniformly described the rapists in racialist terms. They never claimed that the rapists were blond, instead, they consistently claimed that the rapists were "of Mongolian or Asiatic type".[371][372][373]
With the defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945, the laws which banned so-called mixed marriages were lifted. If couples who had already lived together during the Nazi era had remained unmarried due to the legal restrictions then got married after the war, their date of marriage was legally retroactively backdated if they wished it to be the date when they formed a couple.[374] Even if one spouse was already dead, the marriage could be retroactively recognised. In the West German Federal Republic of Germany 1,823 couples applied for recognition, which was granted in 1,255 cases.
France
During the early 20th century, some Vietnamese men married French women, but most of the time had to hide their relationships through casual sexual encounters, brothels and workplaces. According to official records in 1918, of the Vietnamese men and French women, 250 had married officially and 1363 couples were living together without the approval of the French parental consent and without the approval of French authorities.[375][376]
Hungary
The Avars, Central Asian nomads who during the late 6th and 7th centuries had formed Avar Khaganate largely inhabited by conquered Slavs, used their wives and daughters as concubines.[377]
Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among the other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends [Slavs] could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion.
— Chronicle of Fredegar, Book IV, Section 48, written circa 642
The Hungarians are thought to have originated in an ancient Finno-Ugric-speaking population that originally inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains.[378] At the time of the Magyar migration in the 10th century, the present-day Hungary was inhabited by Slavs, numbering about 200,000,[379] who were either assimilated or enslaved by the Magyars.[379]
During the Russian campaign in the 13th century, the Mongols drove some 40,000 Cuman families, a nomadic tribe, west of the Carpathian Mountains.[380] The Iranian Jassic people came to Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. Over the centuries they were fully assimilated into the Hungarian population.[381] Rogerius of Apulia, an Italian monk who witnessed and survived the First Mongol invasion of Hungary, pointed out that the Mongols "found pleasure" in humiliating local women.[382]
Starting in 1938, Hungary under Miklós Horthy passed a series of anti-Jewish measures in the emulation of Germany's Nuremberg Laws. The first, promulgated on 29 May 1938, restricted the number of Jews in each commercial enterprise, in the press, among physicians, engineers and lawyers to twenty percent. The second anti-Jewish law (5 May 1939), for the first time, defined Jews racially: people with 2, 3 or 4 Jewish-born grandparents were declared Jewish. Their employment in government at any level was forbidden, they could not be editors at newspapers, their numbers were restricted to six per cent among theater and movie actors, physicians, lawyers, and engineers. Private companies were forbidden to employ more than 12% Jews. 250,000 Hungarian Jews lost their income. Most of them lost their right to vote as well: before the second Jewish law, about 31% of the Jewish population of Borsod county (Miskolc excluded), 2496 people had this right. At the next elections, less than a month after this new anti-Jewish legislation, only 38 privileged Jews could vote.[383]
Southwestern Europe
In ancient history, the Iberian Peninsula was frequently invaded by foreigners who intermarried with the native population. One of the earliest foreign groups to arrive in the region were the Indo-European Celts who intermarried with the pre-Indo-European Iberians in prehistoric Iberia creating Celtiberians. They were later followed by the Semitic Phoenicians and Carthaginians and the Indo-European Romans who intermarried with the pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula during Classical Antiquity.
They were in turn followed by the Germanic Visigoths, Suebi and Vandals and the Iranian Sarmatians and Alans who also intermarried with the local population in Hispania during late Antiquity. In the 6th century, the region of Spania was reconquered by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), when Byzantine Greeks also settled there, before the region was lost again to the Visigothic Kingdom less than a century later.
The offspring of marriages between Arabs and non-Arabs in Iberia (Berbers or local Iberians) were known as Muladi or Muwallad, an Arabic term still used in the modern Arab world to refer to people with Arab fathers and non-Arab mothers.[384] Some sources consider this term the origin for the Spanish word Mulatto.[385][386] However, the Real Academia Española does not endorse such etymology.[387] This is because the term was mainly used during the time period of al-Andalus to refer to local Iberians (Christians and pagans) who converted to Islam or whose ancestors had converted. An example is the Banu Qasi, a Muslim dynasty of Basque origin. In addition, many Muladi were also descended from Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves taken from Eastern Europe via the Arab slave trade. Collectively, Christian Europeans named all the Muslims of Iberia, "Moors", regardless of ethnic origin.[citation needed]
After the Reconquista, which was completed in 1492, most of the Moors were forced to either flee to Islamic territories or convert to Christianity. The ones who converted to Christianity were known as Moriscos, and they were often persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition as suspects of heresy on the basis of the Limpieza de sangre ("Cleanliness of blood") doctrine, under which anti-miscegenation laws were implemented in the Iberian Peninsula.[388]
Anyone whose ancestors had miscegenated with the Moors or Jews were suspected of secretly practicing Islam or Judaism, so were often particularly monitored by the Inquisition. The claim to universal hidalguía (lowest nobility) of the Basques was justified by erudites like Manuel de Larramendi (1690–1766)[389] because the Arab invasion had not reached the Basque territories, so it was believed that Basques had maintained their original purity, while the rest of Spain was suspect of miscegenation. Hidalguía helped many Basques to official positions in the administration.[390] In December 2008, a genetic study of the current population of the Iberian Peninsula, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, estimated that about 10% have North African ancestors and 20% have Sephardi Jews as ancestors. Since there is no direct link between genetic makeup and religious affiliation, however, it is difficult to draw direct conclusions between their findings and forced or voluntary conversion.[391] Nevertheless, the Sephardic result is in contradiction[392][393][394][395][396] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and has been later questioned by the authors themselves[391][397][398][399] and by Stephen Oppenheimer who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates: "They are really assuming that they are looking at his migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic".[400] The rest of genetic studies done in Spain estimate the North African contribution ranging from 2.5/3.4%[citation needed] to 7.7%.[401]
Italy
As was the case in other areas occupied by Muslims, it was acceptable in Islamic marital law for a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females in southern Italy when under Islamic rule – namely, the Emirate of Sicily between the 9th and 11th centuries; and, of least importance, the short-lived Emirate of Bari between 847 and 871. In this case, most intermarriages were between Arab and Berber males from North Africa and the local Greek, Roman and Italian females. Such intermarriages were particularly common in the Emirate of Sicily, where one writer visiting the place in the 970s expressed shock at how common it was in rural areas.[402] After the Norman conquest of southern Italy, all Muslim citizens (whether foreign, native or mixed) of the Kingdom of Sicily were known as "Moors". After a brief period when the Arab-Norman culture had flourished under the reign of Roger II of Sicily, later rulers forced the Moors to either convert to Christianity or be expelled from the kingdom to Muslim settlement of Lucera in 1224 CE/AD.
In Malta, Arabs and Italians from neighbouring Sicily and Calabria intermarried with the local inhabitants,[403] who were descended from Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and Vandals. There are Maltese people are descended from such unions, and the Maltese language is descended from Siculo-Arabic.
At times, the Italian city-states also played an active role in the Arab slave trade, where Moorish and Italian traders occasionally exchanged slaves.
During World War II, France's Moroccan troops known as Goumiers committed war rapes in Italy, especially after the Battle of Monte Cassino,[404] and also in smaller numbers in France and Germany. In Italy, victims of the mass rape committed after the Battle of Monte Cassino by Goumiers are known as Marocchinate. According to Italian sources, more than 7,000 Italian civilians, including women and children, were raped by Goumiers.[405]
Russia
Already in the 17th century there were many marriages between Russian settlers and aborigines of Siberia. The Metis Foundation estimates that there are about 40,000 mixed-race Russians.[406]
Many Chinese men, even those who had left wives and children behind in China, married local women in the 1920s, especially those women who had been widowed during the wars and upheavals of the previous decade. Their mixed race children tended to be given Russian forenames; some retained their fathers' Chinese surnames, while others took on Russian surnames, and a large proportion also invented new surnames using their father's entire family name and given name as the new surname.
In 2017, The Moscow Times reported that "Mixed-race marriages are becoming more common in Russia."[407]
Southeastern and Eastern Europe
Vikings explored and eventually settled in territories in Slavic-dominated areas of Eastern Europe. By 950 AD these settlements were largely Slavicized through intermarriage with the local population. Eastern Europe was also an important source for the Arab slave trade at the time, when Saqaliba (Slavic) slaves were taken to the Arab World, where the women and girls often served in harems, some of whom married their Arab masters. When the Mongol Empire annexed much of Eastern Europe in the 13th century, the Mongols also intermarried with the local population and often engaged in war rape and capturing sex slaves during the Mongol invasion of Europe.
Turkey
In the 11th century, the Byzantine territory of Anatolia was conquered by the Seljuq Turks, who came from Turkestan in Central Asia. Their Ottoman Turkish descendants went on to annex the Balkans and much of Eastern Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Due to Islamic marital law allowing a Muslim male to marry Christian and Jewish females, it was common in the Ottoman Empire for Turkish males to intermarry with European females. For example, various sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty often had Greek (Rûm), Slavic (Saqaliba), Venetian, Northcaucasian and French wives.
In the Ottoman Empire, in addition to the Ottoman elites often taking large numbers of European wives and concubines (see Southeastern and Eastern Europe section), there were also opportunities for the reverse, when the empire recruited young Christian boys (Europeans and Christian Arabs) to become the elite troops of the Turkish Empire, the Janissaries. These Janissaries were stationed throughout the Turkish empire including the Middle-East and North Africa leading to inter-ethnic relationships between European men and women from the Middle East and North Africa.
The concubines of the Ottoman Sultan consisted chiefly of purchased slaves. Because Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow Muslims, the Sultan's concubines were generally of Christian origin. The mother of a Sultan, though technically a slave, received the extremely powerful title of Valide Sultan, and at times became effective ruler of the Empire (see Sultanate of women). One notable example was Kösem Sultan, daughter of a Greek Christian priest, who dominated the Ottoman Empire during the early decades of the 17th century.[408] Another notable example was Roxelana, the favourite wife of Suleiman the Magnificent.
Some of these European wives exerted great influence upon the empire as Valide Sultan ("Mother-Sultan"), some famous examples including Roxelana, a Ukrainian harem slave who later became Suleiman the Magnificent's favourite wife, and Nakşidil Sultan, wife of Abdul Hamid I, who according to the legend may have been Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, cousin of French Empress Josephine. Due to the common occurrence of such intermarriages in the Ottoman Empire, they have had a significant impact on the ethnic makeup of the modern Turkish population in Turkey, which now differs from that of the Turkic population in Central Asia.[409] In addition to intermarriage, the large harems of Ottoman sultans often consisted almost entirely of female concubines who were of Christian European origin.[410] Sultan Ibrahim the Mad, Ottoman ruler from 1640 to 1648, is said to have drowned 280 concubines of his harem in the Bosphorus.[411] At least one of his concubines, Turhan Hatice, Ukrainian girl captured during one of the raids by Tatars and sold into slavery, survived his reign.
United Kingdom
In the late 15th century, the Romani people, who have Indian origins, arrived in Britain. The Romani in Britain intermarried with the local population and became known to the Romani as the Romanichal. In India, employees and officers of the British East India Company, as well as other European soldiers, intermarried with Indian women. Children born in these marriages were called Anglo-Indians.[412] On some occasions, Indian women moved to Britain to live with their husbands.[413] The British East India Company brought many South Asian lascars (maritime auxiliaries employed by British mercantile and shipping companies) to Britain, where many settled down with local white British wives, due to a lack of Asian women in Britain at the time.[414]
Inter-ethnic relationships have become increasingly accepted over the last several decades. As of 2001, 2% of all marriages in Britain are inter-ethnic. Despite having a much lower non-white population (9%), mixed marriages in the United Kingdom are as common as in the United States, although America has many fewer specific definitions of the race (four racial definitions as opposed to the United Kingdom's 86).[415] As of 2005, it is estimated that nearly half of British-born African-Caribbean males, a third of British-born African-Caribbean females, and a fifth of Indian and African males, have white partners.[416] As of 2009, one in 10 children in the UK lives in a mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity family (families headed by one white-British parent and one white parent not of British origin are included in the figure) and two out of five Chinese women have partners of a different race.[417] One out of five Chinese men have partners of a different race. According to the UK 2001 census, black British males were around 50% more likely than black females to marry outside their race. British Chinese women (30%) were twice as likely as their male counterparts (15%) to marry someone from a different ethnic group.
Middle East
A Stanford team found the greatest diversity outside Africa among people living in the wide crescent of land stretching from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean to northern India. Not only was the region among the first colonized by the African migrants, they theorize, but a large number of European and East Asian genes among the population indicates that it has long been a human highway, with large numbers of migrants from both directions conquering, trading and generally reproducing along its entire length. The same team also found out that the Bedouin nomads of the Middle East actually have some similarities to Europeans and South Asians[citation needed]
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery was common during the Arab slave trade throughout the Middle Ages and early modern period, when women and girls captured from non-Arab lands often ended up as sexual slaves in the harems of the Arab World.[418] Most of these slaves came from places such as Sub-Saharan Africa (mainly Zanj), South Asia (Hindus), the North Caucasus (mainly Circassians),[419] Central Asia (mainly Turks), and Central and Eastern Europe (mainly Saqaliba).[420] The Barbary pirates also captured 1,250,000 slaves from Western Europe and North America between the 16th and 19th centuries.[421][422] It was also common for Arab conquerors, traders and explorers to marry local females in the lands they conquered or traded with, in various parts of Africa, Asia (see Asia section) and Europe (see Europe section).
Inter-ethnic relationships were generally accepted in Arabic society and formed a fairly common theme in medieval Arabic literature and Persian literature. For example, the Persian poet Nizami, who had himself married his Kipchak slave girl, wrote The Seven Beauties (1196). Its frame story involves a Persian prince marrying seven foreign princesses, including Byzantine, Chinese, Indian, Khwarezmian, Maghrebian, Slavic and Tartar princesses. Hadith Bayad wa Riyad, a 12th-century Arabic tale from Al-Andalus, was a love story involving an Iberian girl and a Damascene man. The One Thousand and One Nights tale of "The Man of Al-Yaman and His Six Slave-Girls" involves a Yemeni man's relationship with foreign slave girls, four of which are white, black, brown and yellow.[423] Another One Thousand and One Nights tale, "The Ebony Horse", involves the Prince of Persia, Qamar al-Aqmar, rescuing his lover, the Princess of Sana'a, from the Byzantine Emperor who also wishes to marry her.[424]
One study found that some Arabic-speaking populations—Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, Iraqis, and Bedouins—have what appears to be substantial mtDNA gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa, amounting to 10–15% of lineages within the past three millennia.[425][426] In the case of Yemenites, the average is higher at 35%.[425]
In 1814, Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt wrote of his travels in Egypt and Nubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading:
I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity.[427]
A genetic anthropological study known as the Genographic Project has found what is believed to be faint genetic traces left by medieval Crusaders in the Middle East. The team has uncovered a specific DNA signature in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Jordan that is probably linked to the 7th and 8th Christian crusades. The Crusaders originated from European kingdoms, mostly France, England and the Holy Roman Empire.[428]
Inter-ethnic sexual slavery still continues today in a smaller form in the Gulf Cooperation Council state, where women and children are trafficked from the post-Soviet states, Eastern Europe, Far East, Africa, South Asia and other parts of the Middle East.[429][430][431]
Israel
Among the Jewish population in Israel as of 2014, over 25% of the schoolchildren and over 35% of all newborns are of mixed ancestry of both Ashkenazi and Sephardi/Mizrahi descent, which increases by 0.5% each year. Over 50% of the Jewish population is of at least partial Sephardi/Mizrahi descent.[432]
In Israel, all marriages must be approved by religious authorities, while civil marriages are legally recognized if performed abroad. Rules governing marriage are based on strict religious guidelines of each religion. Under Israeli law, authority over all issues related to Judaism in Israel, including marriage, falls under the Chief Rabbinate of Israel, which is Orthodox. Orthodox Judaism is the only form of Judaism recognized by the state, and marriages performed in Israel by non-Orthodox rabbis are not recognized.
The Rabbinate prohibits marriage in Israel of halakhic Jews (i.e. people born to a Jewish mother or Jewish by conversion), whether they are Orthodox Jews or not, to partners who are non-Jewish or who are of Jewish descent that runs through the paternal line (i.e. not Jewish according to halakha), unless they undergo a formal conversion to Judaism. As a result, in the state of Israel, people of differing religious traditions cannot legally marry someone of another religion and multi-faith couples must leave the country to get married.
The only other option in Israel for the marriage of a halakhic Jew (Orthodox or not) to a non-Jew, or for that matter, a Christian to a non-Christian or Muslim to a non-Muslim, is for one partner to formally convert to the other's religion, be it to Orthodox Judaism, a Christian denomination or a denomination of Islam. As for persons with patrilineal Jewish descent (i.e. not recognized as Jewish according to halakha) who wish to marry a halakhic Jew (i.e., born to a Jewish mother or is Jewish by Orthodox conversion) who is Orthodox or otherwise, is also required to formally convert to Orthodox Judaism or they cannot legally marry.
According to a Haaretz article "Justice Ministry drafts civil marriage law for 'refuseniks'" 300,000 people, or 150,000 couples, are affected by marriage restrictions based on the partners' disparate religious traditions or non-halakhic Jewish status.[433] A poll in 2014 found that three-quarters of Israeli Jews and two-thirds of Israeli Arabs would not marry someone from a different religion. Inter-faith relationships were opposed by 95 percent of Haredi Jews, 88 percent of traditional and religious Jews and 64 percent of secular Jews.[434]
A group of 35 Jewish men, known as "Fire for Judaism", in Pisgat Ze'ev have started patrolling the town in an effort to stop Jewish women from dating Arab men. The municipality of Petah Tikva has also announced an initiative to prevent interracial relationships, providing a telephone hotline for friends and family to "inform" on Jewish girls who date Arab men as well as psychologists to provide counselling. The town of Kiryat Gat launched a school programme in schools to warn Jewish girls against dating local Bedouin men.[435][436]
In February 2010 Maariv has reported that the Tel Aviv municipality has instituted an official, government-sponsored "counselling program" to discourage Jewish girls from dating and marrying Arab boys. The Times has also reported on a vigilante parents' group policing the Jerusalem neighborhood of Pisgat Ze'ev to intimidate and discourage local Arab-Jewish couples. The Jewish anti-missionary group Yad L'Achim has also performed paramilitary "rescue operations" of Jewish women from non-Jewish husbands and celebrates the "rescued women" on their website.[437]
In 2014 the marriage of a Muslim groom and a bride who had converted from Judaism to Islam attracted attention when the wedding was protested by Lehava, an organisation opposing Jewish assimilation. An Israeli court allowed the protest to go ahead but ordered protesters to stay at least 200 metres away from the wedding venue in Rishon LeZion. In response, a demonstration in support for the couple was also held.[438]
In 2005 Ben-Zion Gopstein, a disciple of the ultra-nationalist Meir Kahane, founded the anti-miscegenation organisation Lehava.[439] The group's name is an acronym for "To Prevent Assimilation in the Holy Land".[440] In November 2019, Gopstein was indicted on charges of incitement to terrorism, violence and racism.[441]
Oceania
Australia
Miscegenation was a deliberate policy of the Western Australian Protector of Aborigines, A. O. Neville, who hoped to "breed out" Aboriginal characteristics from the growing "half caste" population of Aborigines in Western Australia. As a result, he failed to prosecute cases where half caste girls were sexually abused or raped by European Australians, who sought an evening on "the black velvet". The children of such unions were often taken from their mothers and confined to "concentration camps" at Moore River and Carrolup, as a part of the policy known as Stolen Generations.[citation needed]
The desire to avoid miscegenation was also a factor in the passage and continued enforcement of the White Australia policy. In 1949, Immigration Minister Arthur Calwell stated "I am sure we don't want half-castes running over our country", while justifying the government's decision to refuse entry to Lorenzo Gamboa (a Filipino man and U.S. Army veteran who had an Australian wife and children).[442][443]
New Zealand
Mixed marriages are very common and almost universally accepted. People who identify as Māori typically have ancestors ('tīpuna'[444]) from at least two distinct ethnicities. Historically this lent itself to the belief that "real" Māori were gradually disappearing from New Zealand through mixed marriage.[445] This view held sway in New Zealand until the late 1960s and 70s, when a revival and re-establishment of Māori culture and tradition coincided with a rejection of the majority opinion.[446]
The belief that Māori were disappearing was partially founded on the reality of high rates of intermarriage between Europeans and Māori since colonisation. During the revival of Māori culture and tradition, this belief was challenged by redefining "Māori" as an ethnic identity as opposed to a racial category.[447] As a result, a person may have one European/Asian/Pacific parent and one Māori parent, but be considered no less "authentically Māori" than a descendant of two Māori.
As of 2010, two-thirds of Māori births, half of Pacific births, and a third of white and Asian births involved more than one ethnic group.[448]
Portuguese colonies
According to Gilberto Freyre, a Brazilian sociologist, interracial marriage was commonplace in the Portuguese colonies, and was even supported by the court as a way to boost low populations and guarantee a successful and cohesive settlement. Thus, settlers often released African slaves to become their wives. The children were guaranteed full Portuguese citizenship, provided the parents were married. Some former Portuguese colonies have large mixed-race populations, for instance, Brazil, Cape Verde, Mozambique, Timor Leste, Macau and São Tomé and Príncipe. In the case of Brazil, the influential "Indianist" novels of José de Alencar (O Guarany, Iracema, and Ubirajara) perhaps went farther than in the other colonies, advocating miscegenation in order to create a truly Brazilian race.[449]
Mixed marriages between Portuguese and locals in former colonies were very common in all Portuguese colonies. Miscegenation was still common in Africa until the independence of the former Portuguese colonies in the mid-1970s. The case for miscegenation in Brazil started in the 1700s when gold was discovered in the heart of the country. This created a spectacular gold rush that lasted nearly 100 years. In this period close to a million men immigrated to Brazil in search of a quick fortune, mostly Portuguese. Since these men had no plans to bring their families, in the process they ended up fathering children with either African slaves or Native American women. Since immigration during this period was overwhelmingly by males, this created a less strict society in terms of enforcing anti-racial laws.
However, Brazil was the last country in the western hemisphere to grant freedom to the slaves, only happening in 1888. When the slaves were freed, the plantation owners encouraged immigration from Europe as a form to replace the slaves. At the beginning of the 20th century, eugenics set foot in Brazil, and although it stated that the white race was superior to the other races, in the end, it somehow contributed to the continuation of the miscegenation of Brazil. With the Politica do Branqueamento (Whitening Policy), the Eugenics encouraged mulatto women (daughter of black and white parents) to marry a white man. According to them, the child would be born much whiter than her mother. A famous painting by Modesto Brocos describes these hopes, showing a black grandmother with her arms to the sky, thanking God for white grandchildren. In the painting, a white man sits at the door, and his wife, a mulatto woman, is holding the child, while the mother is much darker than the daughter.
Demographics of ethnoracial admixture
U.S.
According to the U.S. Census,[450] in 2000 there were 504,119 Asian–white marriages, 287,576 black-white marriages, and 31,271 Asian–black marriages. The black–white marriages increased from 65,000 in 1970 to 403,000 in 2006,[451] and 558,000 in 2010,[452] according to Census Bureau figures.[453]
In the United States, rates of interracial cohabitation are significantly higher than those of marriage. Although only 7 percent of married African American men have Caucasian American wives, 13% of cohabitating African American men have Caucasian American partners. 25% of married Asian American women have Caucasian spouses, but 45% of cohabitating Asian American women are with Caucasian American men. Of cohabiting Asian men, slightly over 37% of Asian men have white female partners over 10% married White American women.[70][454] Asian American women and Asian American men who live with a white partner, 40 and 27 percent, respectively (Le, 2006b). In 2008, of new marriages including an Asian man, 80% were to an Asian spouse and 14% to a White spouse; of new marriages involving an Asian woman, 61% were to an Asian spouse and 31% to a White spouse.[455] Almost 30% of Asians and Latinos outmarry, with 86.8 and 90% of these, respectively, being to a white person.[456] According to Karyn Langhorne Folan, "although the most recent census available reported that 70% of African American women are single, African American women have the greatest resistance to marrying 'out' of the race."[457]
One survey revealed that 19% of black males had engaged in sexual activity with white women.[458] A Gallup poll on interracial dating in June 2006 found 75% of Americans approving of a white man dating a black woman, and 71% approving of a black man dating a white woman. Among people between the ages of 18 and 29, the poll found that 95% approved of blacks and whites dating, and about 60% said they had dated someone of a different race.[459] 69% of Hispanics, 52% of blacks, and 45% of whites said they have dated someone of another race or ethnic group.[460] In 1980, just 17% of all respondents said they had dated someone from a different racial background.[461]
However, according to a study from the University of California at Berkeley, using data from over 1 million profiles of singles from online dating websites, whites were far more reluctant to date outside their race than non-whites. The study found that over 80% of whites, including whites who stated no racial preference, contacted other whites, whereas about 3% of whites contacted blacks, a result that held for younger and older participants. Only 5% of whites responded to inquiries from blacks. Black participants were ten times more likely to contact whites than whites were to contact blacks, however black participants sent inquiries to other blacks more often than otherwise.[462][463]
Interracial marriage is still relatively uncommon, despite the increasing rate. In 2010, 15% of new marriages were interracial, and of those only 9% of Whites married outside of their race. However, this takes into account inter ethnic marriages, this meaning it counts white Hispanics marrying non-Hispanic whites as interracial marriages, despite both bride and groom being racially white. Of the 275,000 new interracial marriages in 2010, 43% were white-Hispanic, 14.4% were white-Asian, 11.9% were white-black and the rest were other combinations.[464] However, interracial marriage has become more common over the past decades due to increasing racial diversity, and liberalizing attitudes toward the practice. The number of interracial marriages in the U.S. increased by 65% between 1990 and 2000, and by 20% between 2000 and 2010.[465] "A record 14.6% of all new marriages in the United States in 2008 were between spouses of a different race or ethnicity from one another. ... Rates more than doubled among whites and nearly tripled among blacks between 1980 and 2008. But for both Hispanics and Asians, rates were nearly identical in 2008 and 1980", according to a Pew Research Center analysis of demographic data from the U.S. Census Bureau.[466]
According to studies by Jenifer L. Bratter and Rosalind B. King made publicly available on the Education Resources Information Center, White female-Black male and White female-Asian male marriages are more prone to divorce than White-White pairings.[467] Conversely, unions between White males and non-White females (and between Hispanics and non-Hispanic persons) have similar or lower risks of divorce than White-White marriages, unions between white male-black female last longer than white-white pairings or white-Asian pairings.[467]
Brazil
Multiracial Brazilians make up 42.6% of Brazil's population, 79,782 million people, and they live in all regions of Brazil. Multiracial Brazilians are mainly people of mixed European, African, East Asian (mostly Japanese) and Amerindian ancestry.
Interracial marriages constituted 22.6% of all marriages in 2000. 15.7% of blacks, 24.4% of whites and 27.6% of Pardos (mixed-race/brown) married someone whose race was different from their own.[468]
Genetic admixture
Sexual reproduction between two populations reduces the genetic distance between the populations. During the Age of Discovery which began in the early 15th century, European explorers sailed all across the globe reaching all the major continents. In the process they came into contact with many populations that had been isolated for thousands of years. The Tasmanian Aboriginals were one of the most isolated groups on the planet.[469] Many died from disease and conflict, but a number of their descendants survive today as multiracial people of Tasmanian and European descent. This is an example of how modern migrations have begun to reduce the genetic divergence of the human species.
New World demographics were radically changed within a short time following the voyage of Columbus.[469] The colonization of the Americas brought Native Americans into contact with the distant populations of Europe, Africa and Asia.[469] As a result, many countries in the Americas have significant and complex multiracial populations.
Admixture in the United States
Genetic studies indicate that the vast majority of African-Americans possess varying degrees of European admixture (the average Black American is 20% European) although studies suggest the Native American admixture in Black Americans is highly exaggerated; some estimates put average African-American possession of European admixture at 25% with figures as high as 50% in the Northeast and less than 10% in the South.[470][471] A 2003 study by Mark D. Shriver of a European-American sample found that the average admixture in the white population is 0.7% African and 3.2% Native American. However, 70% of the sample had no African admixture. The other 30% had African admixture ranging from 2% to 20% with an average of 2.3%. By extrapolating these figures to the whole population some scholars suggest that up to 74 million European-Americans may have African admixture in the same range (2–20%).[472][473] Recently J.T. Frudacas, Shriver's partner in DNA Print Genomics, contradicted him stating "Five percent of European Americans exhibit some detectable level of African ancestry."[474]
Within the African-Americans population, the amount of African admixture is directly correlated with darker skin since less selective pressure against dark skin is applied within the group of "non-passing" individuals. Thus, African-Americans may have a much wider range of African admixture (>0–100%), whereas European-Americans have a lower range (2–20%).
A statistical analysis done in 1958 using historical census data and historical data on immigration and birth rates concluded that 21% of the white population had black ancestors. The growth in the White population could not be attributed to births in the White population and immigration from Europe alone, but had received significant contribution from the African American population as well.[475] The author states in 1958:
The data presented in this study indicate that the popular belief in the non-African background of white persons is invalid. Over twenty-eight million white persons are descendants of persons of African origin. Furthermore, the majority of the persons with African ancestry are classified as White.
A 2003 study on Y-chromosomes and mtDNA detected no African admixture in European-Americans. The sample included 628 European-American Y-chromosomes and mtDNA from 922 European-Americans[476] According to a genome-wide study by 23andme White Americans (European Americans) on average are: "98.6 percent European, 0.19 percent African and 0.18 percent Native American."[470]
In the United States, intermarriage among Filipinos with other races is common. They have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[477] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are of mixed blood, second among Asian Americans, and is the fastest growing.[478]
Admixture in Latin America
Background
Prior to the European conquest of the Americas the demographics of Latin America was naturally 100% American Indian. Today those who identify themselves as Native Americans are small minorities in many countries. For example, the CIA lists Argentina's at 0.9%, Brazil's at 0.4%, and Uruguay's at 0%.[479] However, the range varies widely from country to country in Latin America with some countries having significantly larger Amerindian minorities. According to official statistics—as reported by the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples or CDI—Amerindians make up 10–14%[480] of the population of Mexico.
The early conquest of Latin America was primarily carried out by male soldiers and sailors from Spain and Portugal. Since they carried very few European women on their journeys the new settlers married and fathered children with Amerindian women and also with women taken by force from Africa. This process of miscegenation was even encouraged by the Spanish Monarchy and it led to the system of stratification known as the Casta. This system had Europeans (Spaniards and Portuguese) at the top of the hierarchy followed by those of mixed race. Unmixed Blacks and Native Americans were at the bottom. A philosophy of whitening emerged in which Amerindian and African culture was stigmatized in favor of European values. Many Amerindian languages were lost as mixed race offspring adopted Spanish and Portuguese as their first languages. Only towards the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century did large numbers of Europeans begin to migrate to South America and consequently altering its demographics.
In addition many Africans were shipped to regions all over the Americas and were present in many of the early voyages of the conquistadors. Brazil has the largest population of African descendants outside Africa. Other countries such as Jamaica, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador still have sizeable populations identified as Black. However countries such as Argentina do not have a visible African presence today. Census information from the early 19th century shows that people categorized as Black made up to 30% of the population, or around 400,000 people.[481] Though almost completely absent today, their contribution to Argentine culture is significant and include the tango, the milonga and the zamba, words of Bantu origin.[482]
| Demographics of Brazil in 1835, 1940, 2000 and 2008[483][484] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | White | Brown | Black |
| 1835 | 24.4% | 18.2% | 51.4% |
| 1940 | 64% | 21% | 14% |
| 2000 | 53.7% | 38.5% | 6.2% |
| 2008 | 48.8% | 43.8% | 6.5% |
The ideology of whitening encouraged non-whites to seek white or lighter skinned partners. This dilution of non-white admixture would be beneficial to their offspring as they would face less stigmatization and find it easier to assimilate into mainstream society. After successive generations of European gene flow, non-white admixture levels would drop below levels at which skin color or physical appearance is not affected thus allowing individuals to identify as White. In many regions, the native and black populations were simply overwhelmed by a succession of waves of European immigration.
Historians and scientists are thus interested in tracing the fate of Native Americans and Africans from the past to the future. The questions remain about what proportion of these populations simply died out and what proportion still has descendants alive today including those who do not racially identify themselves as their ancestors would have. Admixture testing has thus become a useful objective tool in shedding light on the demographic history of Latin America.
Recent studies
Unlike in the United States, there were no anti-miscegenation policies in Latin America. Though still a racially stratified society there were no significant barriers to gene flow between the three populations. As a result, admixture profiles are a reflection of the colonial populations of Africans, Europeans and Amerindians. The pattern is also sex biased in that the African and Amerindian maternal lines are found in significantly higher proportions than African or Amerindian Y chromosomal lines. This is an indication that the primary mating pattern was that of European males with Amerindian or African females. According to the study more than half the White populations of the Latin American countries studied have some degree of either Native American or African admixture (MtDNA or Y chromosome). In countries such as Chile and Colombia almost the entire white population was shown to have some non-white admixture.[485][486][487][488]
Frank Moya Pons, a Dominican historian documented that Spanish colonists intermarried with Taíno women, and, over time, these mestizo descendants intermarried with Africans, creating a tri-racial Creole culture. 1514 census records reveal that 40% of Spanish men in the colony of Santo Domingo had Taíno wives.[489] A 2002 study conducted in Puerto Rico suggests that over 61% of the population possess Amerindian mtDNA.[490]
Admixture in the Philippines
Historically, admixture has been a common phenomenon in the Philippines. The Philippines were originally settled by Australoid peoples called Negritos which now form the country's aboriginal community. Admixture occurred between this earlier group and the mainstream Malayo-Polynesian population.[349]
There has been Indian migration to and influence in the Philippines since the precolonial era. About 25% of the words in the Tagalog language are Sanskrit terms and about 5% of the country's population possess Indian ancestry from antiquity.[491] There has been a Chinese presence in the Philippines since the 9th century. However, large-scale migrations of Chinese to the Philippines only started during the Spanish colonial era, when the world market was opened to the Philippines. It is estimated that among Filipinos, 10%–20% have some Chinese ancestry and 1.5% are "full-blooded" Chinese.[350]
According to the American anthropologist Dr. H. Otley Beyer, the ancestry of Filipinos is 2% Arab. This dates back to when Arab traders intermarried with the local Malay Filipina female populations during the pre-Spanish history of the Philippines.[137] A recent genetic study by Stanford University indicates that at least 3.6% of the population are European or of part European descent from both Spanish and United States colonization.[492]
Admixture among the Romani people
Genetic evidence has shown that the Romani people ("Gypsies") originated from the Indian subcontinent and mixed with the local populations in Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In the 1990s, it was discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia, in addition to fairly significant frequencies of particular mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that is rare outside South Asia.
47.3% of Romani males carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside of the Indian subcontinent.[493] Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people.[493] A more detailed study of Polish Romani shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India.[494] Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise only known in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanies.[495]
The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations",[496] while a number of common Mendelian disorders among Romanies from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".[496] See also this table:[497]
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[498] Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations".[498] The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males. A similar preservation of a highly resolved male lineage has been reported elsewhere only for Jewish priests".[498] See also the Cohen Modal Haplotype.
A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani are "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Gypsy groups".[495] The same study revealed that this population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[495]
Admixture in South Africa
Coloureds (Afrikaans: Kleurlinge or Bruinmense, lit. "Brown people") are a multiracial ethnic group native to Southern Africa who have ancestry from more than one of the various populations inhabiting the region, including Khoisan, Bantu, European, Austronesian, East Asian or South Asian. Because of the combination of ethnicities, different families and individuals within a family may have a variety of different physical features.[499][500] Coloured was a legally defined racial classification during apartheid.[500][501] In the Western Cape, a distinctive Cape Coloured and affiliated Cape Malay culture developed. In other parts of Southern Africa, people classified as Coloured were usually the descendants of individuals from two distinct ethnicities. Genetic studies suggest the group has the highest levels of mixed ancestry in the world.[502][503] Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the maternal lines of the Coloured population are descended mostly from African Khoisan women. This ethnicity shows a gender-biased admixture.[504][505] While a plurality of male lines have come from Ngunis, Southern African, West African and East African populations, 45.2%, Western European lineages contributed 37.3% to paternal components and South Asian/ Southeast Asian lineages 17.5%.[504][505]
Coloureds are to be mostly found in the western part of South Africa. In Cape Town, they form 45.4% of the total population, according to the South African National Census of 2011.[506]: 56–59
In science fiction
Science fiction films, books, and games sometimes contain theories of miscegenation, speculating on race mixing with androids and alien species. In the video game series Mass Effect, the protagonist can develop romantic relationships and have sex with alien creatures such as Liara T'soni, and in video game Detroit: Become Human there are mentions of android wives and prostitutes, and one mission with the character Connor involves going to an android strip club to investigate a murder and find a deviating android. The idea of a 'sex android' is explored by the character Pris in the film Blade Runner.[507][508][509][510][511][512]
See also
- A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century
- Discrimination based on skin color
- Exogamy
- First interracial kiss on television
- Heterosis
- Interracial marriage
- Interracial marriage in the United States
- Limpieza de sangre
- List of interracial romance films
- Loving Day
- Mixed Race Day
- Melungeon
- Multiculturalism
- One-drop rule
- Outcrossing
- Plaçage
- Race and genetics
- Race and society
- Race of the future
- Racial antisemitism
- Racial Integrity Act of 1924
Notes
References
- ^ "Miscegenation | Definition of Miscegenation by Oxford Dictionary on Lexico.com also meaning of Miscegenation". Lexico Dictionaries | English. Retrieved 17 June 2020.
- ^ a b "miscegenation | Origin and meaning of miscegenation by Online Etymology Dictionary". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ "Miscegenation; the theory of the blending of the races, applied to the American white man and negro". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ Downing, Karen; Nichols, Darlene; Webster, Kelly (2005). Multiracial America: A Resource Guide on the History and Literature of Interracial Issues. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8108-5199-3.
- ^ "How Racial Minorities View Interracial Couples | Psychology Today Canada". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ "2. Public views on intermarriage". Pew Research Center’s Social & Demographic Trends Project. 18 May 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2021.
- ^ Paset, P. S.; Taylor, R. D. (December 1991). "Black and white women's attitudes toward interracial marriage". Psychological Reports. 69 (3 Pt 1): 753–754. doi:10.2466/pr0.1991.69.3.753. ISSN 0033-2941. PMID 1784661. S2CID 29540796.
- ^ Chuang, Roxie; Wilkins, Clara; Tan, Mingxuan; Mead, Caroline (1 April 2021). "Racial minorities' attitudes toward interracial couples: An intersection of race and gender". Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 24 (3): 453–467. doi:10.1177/1368430219899482. ISSN 1368-4302. S2CID 216166130.
- ^ Kyros, Katharine Franks (2011). "Using marriage to protect White supremacy and heterosexual privilege : a historical analysis of marriage law in the United States". Smith ScholarWorks.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2002. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
The term is used esp. by people who believe in concepts of racial superiority or racial purity and therefore object to interracial relationships ....
- ^ Bryc, Katarzyna; Durand, Eric Y.; Macpherson, J. Michael; Reich, David; Mountain, Joanna L. (8 January 2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636.
- ^ "Genetically, There's No Such Thing as a Mexican". NBC News. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ Wade, Lizzie (18 December 2014). "Genetic study reveals surprising ancestry of many Americans". Science | AAAS. Retrieved 2 August 2021.
- ^ Bonilla, C.; Parra, E. J.; Pfaff, C. L.; Dios, S.; Marshall, J. A.; Hamman, R. F.; Ferrell, R. E.; Hoggart, C. L.; McKeigue, P. M.; Shriver, M. D. (2004). "Admixture in the Hispanics of the San Luis Valley, Colorado, and its implications for complex trait gene mapping". Annals of Human Genetics. 68 (2): 139–153. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2003.00084.x. hdl:2027.42/65937. ISSN 1469-1809. PMID 15008793. S2CID 13702953.
- ^ Newman, Richard (1999). "Miscegenation". In Kwame Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (ed.). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (1st ed.). New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1320. ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5.
Miscegenation, a term for sexual relations across racial lines; no longer in use because of its racist implications
- ^ Pascoe, P. (1996). "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of "Race" in Twentieth-Century America". The Journal of American History. 83 (1): 44–69. doi:10.2307/2945474. JSTOR 2945474.
- ^ "Censo Demografico 2010" (PDF). Biblioteca.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
- ^ "Censo Demografico 2010" (PDF). Biblioteca.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
- ^ Gove, Philip B., ed. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Springfield, MA: G. & C. Merriam.
- ^ "The Miscegenation Hoax". Museum of Hoaxes. Retrieved 2 April 2008.
- ^ Hollinger, D. A. (2003). "Amalgamation and Hypodescent: The Question of Ethnoracial Mixture in the History of the United States". The American Historical Review. 108 (5): 1363–1390. doi:10.1086/529971.
- ^ "Groundbreaking Interracial Marriage". ABC News. 14 June 2007.
- ^ Karthikeyan, Hrishi; Chin, Gabriel (2002). "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950". Asian Law Journal. 9 (1). SSRN 283998.
- ^ "Where were Interracial Couples Illegal?". LovingDay. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
- ^ "Courtroom History" Archived 31 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine Lovingday.org Retrieved 28 June 2007
- ^ Stein, Edward (2004). "Past and present proposed amendments to the United States constitution regarding marriage". Washington University Law Quarterly. 82 (3). SSRN 576181.
- ^ "Ancient Ethiopian genome reveals extensive Eurasian admixture in Eastern Africa".
- ^ Ehud R. Toledano (1998). Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East. University of Washington Press. pp. 13–4. ISBN 978-0-295-97642-6.
- ^ "Jotawa: Afro-Asians in East Africa". Color Q World. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Marina Carter; James Ng Foong Kwong (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Volume 1 of European expansion and indigenous response, v. 1. BRILL. p. 199. ISBN 978-9004175723.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Paul Younger Professor Emeritus of Religious Studies McMaster University (2009). New Homelands : Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa: Hindu Communities in Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad, South Africa, Fiji, and East Africa. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0199741922.
- ^ "What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity" (PDF): 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - ^ a b Brian L. Moore (1995). Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900. Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. Volume 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. pp. 272–273. ISBN 978-0773513549. ISSN 0846-8869.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Huguette Ly-Tio-Fane Pineo; Edouard Lim Fat (2008). From alien to citizen: the integration of the Chinese in Mauritius. Éditions de l'océan Indien. p. 174. ISBN 978-9990305692.
- ^ Huguette Ly Tio Fane-Pineo (1985). Chinese Diaspora in Western Indian Ocean. Ed. de l'océan indien. p. 287. ISBN 978-9990305692.
- ^ "What Inter-Ethnic Marriage in Mauritius Tells Us About The Nature of Ethnicity" (PDF): 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - ^ Monique Dinan (2002). Mauritius in the Making: Across the Censuses, 1846–2000. Nelson Mandela Centre for African Culture, Ministry of Arts & Culture. p. 41. ISBN 978-9990390469.
- ^ Rabaud, Marlène; Zatjman, Arnaud (16 March 2010). "Katanga's forgotten people". France 24 International News. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
Like many mixed-race children in Congo, they were born of a Japanese father who came to work in the mines of Katanga in south-east of the country. Today, they accuse their fathers of wanting to kill them so as not to leave behind any traces when they returned to Japan.
- ^ a b Gemma Berniell-Lee; Stéphanie Plaza; Elena Bosch; Francesc Calafell; Eric Jourdan; Maya Cesari; Gérard Lefranc & David Comas (2008). "Admixture and Sexual Bias in the Population Settlement of La Réunion Island (Indian Ocean)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. WILEY-LISS, INC. 136 (1): 100–107. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20783. PMID 18186507. Archived from the original on 5 January 2013. Retrieved 9 July 2010.
- ^ Tofanelli, S.; Bertoncini, S.; Castri, L.; Luiselli, D.; Calafell, F.; Donati, G.; Paoli, G. (2009). "On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages" (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26 (9): 2109–2124. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp120. PMID 19535740. S2CID 22042499. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 January 2018.
- ^ Jean-Aimé Rakotoarisoa; Razafindrazaka, H.; Pagani, L.; Ricaut, F.-X.; Antao, T.; Capredon, M.; Sambo, C.; Radimilahy, C.; et al. (6 January 2014). "Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 111 (3): 936–941. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111..936P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1321860111. PMC 3903192. PMID 24395773.
- ^ "Dienekes' Anthropology Blog: Austronesian (~1/3) Bantu (~2/3) admixture in Madagascar". Dienekes.blogspot.com. 29 January 2014.
- ^ A small cohort of Island Southeast Asian women founded Madagascar, by Murray P. Cox, Michael G. Nelson, Meryanne K. Tumonggor, François-X. Ricaut and Herawati Sudoyo
- ^ Pan 1994, p. 157
- ^ Bielski, Zosia; Chambers, Stephanie (9 February 2017). "Canada 150: A century and a half of marriage". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
- ^ Yancey, George (22 March 2007). "Experiencing Racism: Differences in the Experiences of Whites Married to Blacks and Non-Black Racial Minorities". Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 38 (2): 197–213. doi:10.3138/jcfs.38.2.197.
- ^ Fredrickson, G. M. (2005). "Mulattoes and metis. Attitudes toward miscegenation in the United States and France since the seventeenth century". International Social Science Journal. 57 (183): 103–112. doi:10.1111/j.0020-8701.2005.00534.x.
- ^ "Echoes of Freedom: South Asian Pioneers in California, 1899–1965 – Chapter 9: Home Life". University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
- ^ Fabros, Jr., Alex S. (February 1995). "When Hilario Met Sally: The Fight Against Anti-Miscegenation Laws". Filipinas Magazine. Burlingame, California: Positively Filipino LLC. Retrieved 25 August 2018 – via Positively Filipino.
- ^ Gates, Henry Louis Jr (2009). In Search of Our Roots: How 19 Extraordinary African Americans Reclaimed Their Past. New York: Crown Publishing. pp. 20–21.
- ^ Fouad Zakharia; Analabha Basu; Devin Absher; Themistocles L Assimes; Alan S Go; Mark A Hlatky; Carlos Iribarren; Joshua W Knowles; Jun Li; Balasubramanian Narasimhan; Steven Sidney; Audrey Southwick; Richard M Myers; Thomas Quertermous; Neil Risch; Hua Tang (2009). "Characterizing the admixed African ancestry of African Americans". Genome Biology. 10 (R141): R141. doi:10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-r141. PMC 2812948. PMID 20025784.
- ^ Katarzyna Bryc; Eric Y. Durand; J. Michael Macpherson; David Reich; Joanna L. Mountain (8 January 2015). "The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 96 (1): 37–53. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010. PMC 4289685. PMID 25529636.
- ^ "The Motion Picture Production Code of 1930". Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
- ^ "More black women consider 'dating out'". USA Today. 8 May 2007.
- ^ "African & Native Americans share a rich history". African American Registry. c. 2010. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ Dorothy A. Mays (1 January 2004). Women in Early America: Struggle, Survival, and Freedom in a New World. ABC-CLIO. p. 218. ISBN 978-1-85109-429-5.
- ^ "Border Love on the Rio Grande: African American Men and Latinas in the Rio Grande Valley of South Texas (1850–1940)". The Black Past. 10 June 2003.
- ^ Chin, Gabriel and Hrishi Karthikeyan, (2002) Asian Law Journal vol. 9 "Preserving Racial Identity: Population Patterns and the Application of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes to Asian Americans, 1910–1950". Papers.ssrn.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ "The United States". Chinese blacks in the Americas. Color Q World. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Susan Dente Ross; Paul Martin Lester (2011). Images That Injure: Pictorial Stereotypes in the Media. ABC-CLIO. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-313-37892-8.
- ^ Evaluation of Group Genetic Ancestry of Populations from Philadelphia and Dakar in the Context of Sex-Biased Admixture in the Americas Stefflova K, Dulik MC, Pai AA, Walker AH, Zeigler-Johnson CM, Gueye SM, Schurr TG, Rebbeck TR – PLOS One (2009). [1]
- ^ Benson Tong (2004). Asian American children: a historical handbook and guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-313-33042-1.
- ^ Maria P. P. Root (2001). Love's Revolution: Interracial Marriage. Temple University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-56639-826-8.
- ^ "An Amalgamation Waltz". utc.iath.virginia.edu. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ "Practical Amalgamation". digital.librarycompany.org. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
- ^ a b Bateman, David A. "Transatlantic Anxieties: Democracy and Diversity in Nineteenth-Century Discourse." Studies in American Political Development, 33 (October 2019), 139–177. doi:10.1017/S0898588X19000105
- ^ "Bob Jones University Drops Interracial Dating Ban". Christianity Today.
- ^ "Tiger Woods alienates black community with white lovers". Daily News (New York). 6 December 2009.
- ^ "Miscegenation". Nave's Topical Bible. Bible Tools. Retrieved 13 July 2008.
- ^ a b Swanbrow, Diane (23 March 2000). "Intimate Relationships Between Races More Common Than Thought". University of Michigan. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Krugman, Paul, The Conscience of a Liberal, W. W. Norton & Company, 2007, p. 210.
- ^ Gallup Poll, "Record-High 86% Approve of Black-White Marriages". 12 September 2011. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
- ^ Foster, Mary. "Interracial Couple Denied Marriage License in La". Associated Press. 16 October 2009.
- ^ a b Romanzo Adams (2005). Interracial Marriage in Hawaii. Nature. 140. Kessinger Publishing. p. 396. Bibcode:1937Natur.140..665F. doi:10.1038/140665a0. ISBN 978-1-4179-9268-3. S2CID 4086444. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ Margaret M. Schwertfeger (1982). Interethnic Marriage and Divorce in Hawaii A Panel Study of 1968 First Marriages. Kessinger Publishing.
- ^ David Anthony Chiriboga; Linda S. Catron (1991). Divorce: crisis, challenge, or relief?. NYU Press. p. 254. ISBN 978-0-8147-1450-8. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ Gary A. Cretser; Joseph J. Leon (1982). Intermarriage in the United States, Volume 5. Psychology Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-917724-60-2. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ United States Bureau of Education (1921). Bulletin, Issues 13–18. U.S. G.P.O. p. 27. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ United States. Office of Education (1920). Bulletin, Issue 16. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education. p. 27. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology (1920). American journal of physical anthropology, Volume 3. A. R. Liss. p. 492. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ Gary A. Cretser; Joseph J. Leon (1982). Intermarriage in the United States, Volume 5. Routledge. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-917724-60-2. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ Alfred Emanuel Smith (1905). New Outlook, Volume 81. Outlook Publishing Company, Inc. p. 988. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ The Outlook, Volume 81. Outlook Co. 1905. p. 988. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ "Identity, Rebellion, and Social Justice Among Chinese Contract Workers in Nineteenth-Century Cuba" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
- ^ Cuba — History.com Articles, Video, Pictures and Facts. History.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ David Stanley (January 1997). Cuba: a Lonely Planet travel survival kit. Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-0-86442-403-7.
- ^ CIA – The World Factbook. Cia.gov. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Mendizabal, I.; Sandoval, K.; Berniell-Lee, G.; Calafell, F.; Salas, A.; Martinez-Fuentes, A.; Comas, D. (2008). "Genetic origin, admixture, and asymmetry in maternal and paternal human lineages in Cuba". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8: 213. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-213. PMC 2492877. PMID 18644108.
- ^ "Afromestizo". bjmjr.net. Archived from the original on 7 August 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^ Matthew Restall (2005). Beyond Black and Red: African-Native Relations in Colonial Latin America. UNM Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-8263-2403-0.
- ^ Chinese Food in Costa Rica by Jacqueline M. Newman. Flavorandfortune.com. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ Margaret Tyler Mitchell; Scott Pentzer (2008). Costa Rica: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 249. ISBN 978-1-85109-992-4.
- ^ Costa Rica, People. Philip.greenspun.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 116. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 68. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ a b c Lowell Gudmundson (May 1984). "Black into White in Nineteenth Century Spanish America: Afro-American Assimilation in Argentina and Costa Rica". Slavery and Abolition. 5 (1). Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ Frederic Gomes Cassidy; Robert Brock Le Page (2002). Frederic Gomes Cassidy; Robert Brock Le Page (eds.). Dictionary of Jamaican English. University of the West Indies Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-976-640-127-6.
- ^ Franklin W. Knight; K. O. Laurence, eds. (2011). General History of the Caribbean: The long nineteenth century : nineteenth-century transformations. Volume 4 of General History of the Caribbean. P. C. Emmer, Jalil Sued Badillo, Germán Carrera Damas, B. W. Higman, Bridget Brereton, Unesco (illustrated ed.). UNESCO. p. 228. ISBN 978-92-3-103358-2.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Brian L. Moore (1995). Cultural Power, Resistance, and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900. Mcgill-Queen's Studies in Ethnic History. Volume 22 of McGill-Queen's studies in ethnic history (illustrated ed.). McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-7735-1354-9. ISSN 0846-8869.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Howard Johnson (1988). Howard Johnson (ed.). After the Crossing: Immigrants and Minorities in Caribbean Creole Society. Volume 7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities (illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-7146-3357-2.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Alena Heitlinger (1999). Alena Heitlinger (ed.). Émigré Feminism: Transnational Perspectives. Volume 7, Issue 1 of Immigrants & minorities (illustrated ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-8020-7899-5.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Simms TM, Wright MR, Hernandez M, et al. (August 2012). "Y-chromosomal diversity in Haiti and Jamaica: contrasting levels of sex-biased gene flow". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 148 (4): 618–31. doi:10.1002/ajpa.22090. PMID 22576450.
- ^ Norman E. Whitten; Arlene Torres (1998). Blackness in Latin America and the Caribbean: Central America and Northern and Western South America. Indiana University Press. p. 429. ISBN 978-0-253-21193-4.
- ^ a b "2010 Censure". Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. IBGE.
- ^ Fish, Jefferson. "What Does the Brazilian Census Tell Us About Race?". Psychology Today. Psychology Today.
- ^ a b Monk, Ellis P. (2016). "The Consequences of 'Race and Color' in Brazil". Social Problems. 63 (3): 413–430. doi:10.1093/socpro/spw014.
- ^ Junior, Manuel Diéguez, and Oscar Uribe Villegas "El Brasil Como Proceso De Mestizaje y Transculturación", Revista Mexicana De Sociología, 1963
- ^ Preethy Sarah Samuel (2000). Cultural Continuity Or Assimilation in the Familial Domain of the Indo-Guyanese. Wayne State University. Sociology (illustrated ed.). p. 38. ISBN 978-0549387626.
- ^ Margery Kirkpatrick (1993). From the Middle Kingdom to the New World: Aspects of the Chinese Experience in Migration to British Guiana, Volume 1. Volume 1 of From the Middle Kingdom to the New World. M. Kirkpatrick. p. 156. ISBN 978-9768136275.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Margery Kirkpatrick (1993). From the Middle Kingdom to the New World: Aspects of the Chinese Experience in Migration to British Guiana, Volume 1. Volume 1 of From the Middle Kingdom to the New World. M. Kirkpatrick. p. 128. ISBN 978-9768136275.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Thomas William Francis Gann (1972). "Ancient cities and modern tribes: exploration and adventure in Maya lands". Nature (reprint, illustrated ed.). 119 (3000): 247. Bibcode:1927Natur.119R.631.. doi:10.1038/119631b0. S2CID 4083309.
- ^ Thomas William Francis Gann (1918). The Maya Indians of Southern Yucatan and Northern British Honduras, Volume 572, Issue 64. Native American legal materials collection. Volume 6 of Human relations area files: Yucatec Maya. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 32.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Thomas Ganns (2001). Terry Rugeley (ed.). Maya Wars: Ethnographic Accounts from Nineteenth-century Yucatán (illustrated ed.). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0806133553.
- ^ Brian L. Moore (1987). Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana After Slavery, 1838–1891. Urban Life in Kingston, Jamaica the Culture and Class Ideology of Two Neighbourhoods. Volume 4 of Caribbean studies (illustrated ed.). Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 181. ISBN 978-0677219806. ISSN 0275-5793.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Julitta Rydlewska; Barbara Braid, eds. (2014). Unity in Diversity, Volume 1: Cultural Paradigm and Personal Identity, Volume 1. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 14. ISBN 978-1443867290.
- ^ Dennison Moore (1995). Origins and Development of Racial Ideology in Trinidad. Nycan. p. 238. ISBN 978-0968006009.
- ^ Selwyn D. Ryan (1999). The Jhandi and the Cross: The Clash of Cultures in Post-creole Trinidad and Tobago. Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, The University of the West Indies. p. 263. ISBN 978-9766180317.
- ^ Rebecca Chiyoko King-O'Riain; Stephen Small; Minelle Mahtani, eds. (2014). Global Mixed Race. NYU Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-0814770474. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
- ^ Regis, Ferne Louanne (April 2011). "The Dougla in Trinidad's Consciousness" (PDF). History in Action. 2 (1). ISSN 2221-7886. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 March 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2015.
- ^ Taste of Peru Archived 27 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Taste of Peru. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Teresa A. Meade (2011). A History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present. Volume 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World (illustrated ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444358117.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 143. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ Adam McKeown (2001). Chinese Migrant Networks and Cultural Change: Peru, Chicago, and Hawaii 1900-1936 (illustrated ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0226560250.
- ^ Robert G. Lee (1999). Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture. Temple University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1439905715.
chinese peruvian women.
- ^ Chee-Beng Tan (2004). Chinese Overseas: Comparative Cultural Issues (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-9622096615.
- ^ Josephine D. Lee; Imogene L. Lim; Yuko Matsukawa (2002). Re/collecting Early Asian America: Essays in Cultural History. Temple University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-1439901205.
- ^ Walton Look Lai (1998). The Chinese in the West Indies, 1806-1995: A Documentary History. Walton Look Lai (illustrated ed.). Press, University of the West Indies. p. 8. ISBN 978-9766400217.
- ^ Michael J. Gonzales (2014). Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 1875–1933. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1477306024.
- ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 144. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 145. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ Isabelle Lausent-Herrera (2010). Walton Look Lai; Chee Beng Tan (eds.). The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Brill ebook titles. BRILL. p. 146. ISBN 978-9004182134.
- ^ Michael J. Gonzales (2014). Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 1875–1933. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1477306024.
- ^ Michael J. Gonzales (1985). Plantation Agriculture and Social Control in Northern Peru, 1875–1933. Brill ebook titles. Volume 62 of Texas Pan American Series. University of Texas Press. p. 100. ISBN 978-0292764910.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Elliott Young (2014). Alien Nation: Chinese Migration in the Americas from the Coolie Era Through World War II. The David J. Weber Series in the New Borderlands History. Volume 4 of Wiley Blackwell Concise History of the Modern World (illustrated ed.). UNC Press Books. p. 82. ISBN 978-1469612966.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ an Occasional Correspondent (28 June 1873). "THE COOLIE TRADE.; THE SLAVERY OF THE PRESENT. THE TRAFFIC OF PERU HIRING OF THE COO- LIE HORRORS OF THE MIDDLE PASSAGE THE COOLIE'S FATE". The New York Times. CALLAO, Peru. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ Albert Hyma, Mary Stanton. "Streams of civilization". 1. Christian Liberty Press: 215. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - ^ a b c d "Arab and native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia". ColorQ World. Retrieved 24 December 2008.
- ^ Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-521-66370-0.
- ^ a b Leupp, pp. 52–3
- ^ a b Walter Joseph Fischel (1951). Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. University of California Press. p. 407.
- ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ History of Science Society; Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis. Published by the University of Chicago Press for the History of Science Society. p. 120.
- ^ Orphans of Vietnam: One Last Agonizing Issue
- ^ Son of U.S. soldier left behind in Vietnam helps other 'Amerasians' reunite with families [2]
- ^ United: Carlsbad Vietnam veteran discovers daughter he fathered during war [3]
- ^ Gowen Annie, 18 April 2015, 40 years after the fall of Saigon, Americans' children are still left behind
- ^ a b Fischer-Tiné, H. (2003). "'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths': European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880–1914". Indian Economic & Social History Review. 40 (2): 163–190. doi:10.1177/001946460304000202. S2CID 146273713.
- ^ Ianfu, the Comfort Women of the Japanese Imperial Army of the Pacific War: Broken Silence: By David A. Schmidt [4]
- ^ "Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan". Digital Chosunibuto (English edition). 19 March 2007. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - ^ Tanaka, Toshiyuki (2002). Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the Us Occupation. Routledge. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-19401-3.
- ^ Ailee Moon (1998). Korean American Women: From Tradition to Modern Feminism. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-275-95977-7.
- ^ Jill Jolliffe Dili (3 November 2001). "Timor's Haunted Women". East Timor & Indonesia Action Network.
- ^ ""Japanese Troops Took Locals as Comfort Women": International". Pacific Islands Report. 21 September 1999.
- ^ "Congressional Record, V. 151, Pt. 12, July 14 to July 22, 2005". Government Printing Office. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^ Love for Sale: a global history of prostitution by Nils Ringdal, trans Richard Daly[dead link]. By Sarah Burton. The Independent. November 2004.
- ^ Bali Beach Gigolos Under Fire Archived 8 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Asia Sentinel, 4 May 2010
- ^ Roy, Olivier (1 October 2007). The New Central Asia: Geopolitics and the Birth of Nations Paperback. New York: New York University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0814776094.
- ^ [5].Central Asian world cities (XI – XIII century)faculty.washington.edu
- ^ Ramirez-Faria, Carlos (30 June 2007). Concise Encyclopeida Of World History. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 120. ISBN 978-8126907755.
- ^ H. Schram, Robert (16 September 2013). Mixed Marriage . . . Interreligious, Interracial, Interethnic. Bloomington, Indiana: Xlibris. p. 125. ISBN 978-1483688152.
- ^ Villems, Richard; Khusnutdinova, Elza; Kivisild, Toomas; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Voevoda, Mikhail; Osipova, Ludmila; Malyarchuk, Boris; Derenko, Miroslava; Damba, Larisa (21 April 2015). "The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia". PLOS Genetics. 11 (4): e1005068. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 4405460. PMID 25898006.
- ^ Heyer, Evelyne; Balaresque, Patricia; Jobling, Mark A.; Quintana-Murci, Lluis; Chaix, Raphaelle; Segurel, Laure; Aldashev, Almaz; Hegay, Tanya (1 September 2009). "Genetic diversity and the emergence of ethnic groups in Central Asia". BMC Genetics. 10 (1): 49. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-10-49. ISSN 1471-2156. PMC 2745423. PMID 19723301.
- ^ Hartl, Daniel L.; Jones, Elizabeth W. (2009), Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, p. 262, ISBN 9780763758684
- ^ [6] Archived 2 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Haber, Marc; Platt, Daniel E.; Bonab, Maziar Ashrafian; Youhanna, Sonia C.; Soria-Hernanz, David F.; Martínez-Cruz, Begoña; Douaihy, Bouchra; Ghassibe-Sabbagh, Michella; Rafatpanah, Hoshang; Ghanbari, Mohsen; Whale, John; Balanovsky, Oleg; Wells, R. Spencer; Comas, David; Tyler-Smith, Chris; Zalloua, Pierre A.; Consortium, The Genographic (28 March 2012). "Afghanistan's Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events". PLOS ONE. 7 (3): e34288. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...734288H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034288. PMC 3314501. PMID 22470552.
- ^ a b Edward H. Schafer (1963). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of Tʻang Exotics. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-520-05462-2.
- ^ Mark Edward Lewis (2009). China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-674-03306-1.
- ^ Jacques Gernet (31 May 1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-521-49781-7.
- ^ a b "Chinese of Arab and Persian descent". ColorQ World. Retrieved 23 December 2008.
- ^ University of California (1868–1952); University of California (System); University of California, Berkeley (1951). University of California publications in Semitic philology, Volumes 11–12. University of California Press. p. 407. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. the University of Michigan: The Toyo Bunko. p. 34. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ Patricia Buckley Ebrey; Anne Walthall; James Palais (2008). Pre-modern East Asia: to 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Cengage Learning. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-547-00539-3. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Amnon Shiloah (2003). Music in the World of Islam. Wayne State University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-8143-2970-2. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Eliot Weinberger (2009). Oranges & Peanuts for Sale. New Directions Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8112-1834-4. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Maria Jaschok; Jingjun Shui (2000). The History of Women's Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of their Own. Routledge. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-7007-1302-8. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Israeli, Raphael (2002). Islam in China. United States of America: Lexington Books. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-7391-0375-3.
- ^ Farmer, Edward L., ed. (1995). Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule. BRILL. p. 82. ISBN 9004103910.
- ^ Jiang, Yonglin (2011). The Mandate of Heaven and The Great Ming Code. University of Washington Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0295801667.
- ^ The Great Ming Code / Da Ming lu. University of Washington Press. 2012. p. 88. ISBN 978-0295804002.
- ^ Michael Dillon (1999). China's Muslim Hui Community: Migration, Settlement and Sects. Richmond: Curzon Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7007-1026-3. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
- ^ Dru C. Gladney (1996). Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the People's Republic. Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-674-59497-5. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
- ^ China archaeology and art digest, Volume 3, Issue 4. Art Text (HK) Ltd. 2000. p. 30. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
- ^ Association for Asian studies (Ann Arbor;Michigan) (1976). A-L, Volumes 1–2. Columbia University Press. p. 817. ISBN 978-0-231-03801-0. Retrieved 29 June 2010.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ Chen, Da-Sheng. "Chinese-Iranian Relations vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T'ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
- ^ Joseph Needham (1971). Science and civilisation in China, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press. p. 495. ISBN 978-0-521-07060-7. Retrieved 29 June 2010.
- ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 17. ISBN 978-3447040914.
- ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1. Volume 37 of Turcologica Series, Turcologica, Bd. 37 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 18. ISBN 978-3447040914.
Tibetans south of the Yellow river were displaced much earlier by Salar and ... intermarried extensively with local Tibetan women , under the condition that ...
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Royal Geographical Society (Great Britain) (1894). The Geographical journal, Volume 3. London: Royal Geographical Society. p. 362. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
- ^ The Geographical journal, Volume 3. London. 1894. p. 362. Retrieved 11 December 2015.
- ^ 秉默, ed. (16 October 2008). "韩有文传奇 然 也". 中国国民党革命委员会中央委员会. 民革中央. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016.
- ^ 朱, 国琳 (3 March 2011). "马呈祥在新疆". 民族日报-民族日报一版 (民族日报数字报刊平台). Archived from the original on 2011.
- ^ 韩, 芝华 (16 October 2009). "怀念我的父亲──韩有文". 中国国民党革命委员会新疆维吾尔自治区委员会. Archived from the original on 6 September 2017.
- ^ Yang, Shengmin; Wu, Xiujie (2018). "12 THEORETICAL PARADIGM OR METHODOLOGICAL HEURISTIC? Reflections on Kulturkreislehre with Reference to China". In Holt, Emily (ed.). Water and Power in Past Societies. SUNY Series, The Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology Distinguished Monograph Series (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-1438468754.
The Salar did and do not fully exclude intermarriage with other ethnic groups. ... reached that allowed Salar men to marry Tibetan women (Ma 2011, 63).
- ^ Yang, Shengmin; Wu, Xiujie (2018). "12 THEORETICAL PARADIGM OR METHODOLOGICAL HEURISTIC? Reflections on Kulturkreislehre with Reference to China". In Arnason, Johann P.; Hann, Chris (eds.). Anthropology and Civilizational Analysis: Eurasian Explorations. SUNY series, Pangaea II: Global/Local Studies (illustrated ed.). SUNY Press. p. 291. ISBN 978-1438469393.
The Salar did and do not fully exclude intermarriage with other ethnic groups. ... reached that allowed Salar men to marry Tibetan women (Ma 2011, 63).
- ^ Central Asiatic Journal, Volumes 43-44. O. Harrassowitz. 1999. p. 212.
towards outsiders, the Salar language has been retained. Additionally, the ethnic group has been continuously absorbing a great amount of new blood from other nationalities. In history, with the exception of Hui, there is no case of a Salar's daughter marrying a non-Salar. On the contrary , many non - Salar females married into Salar households . As folk acounts and historical records recount , shortly after Salar ancestors reached Xunhua , they had relationships with neighbouring Tibetans through marriage .
- ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2007). Salar: A Study in Inner Asian Language Contact Processes, Part 1. Volume 37 of Turcologica Series, Turcologica, Bd. 37 (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-3447040914.
Tibetans south of the Yellow river were displaced much earlier by Salar and ... intermarried extensively with local Tibetan women , under the condition that ...
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Simon, Camille (2015). "Chapter 4 Linguistic Evidence of Salar-Tibetan Contacts in Amdo". In M Hille, Marie-Paule; Horlemann, Bianca; Nietupski, Paul K. (eds.). Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society: Multidisciplinary Approaches. Studies in Modern Tibetan Culture. Marie-Paule Hille, Bianca Horlemann, Paul K. Nietupski, Chang Chung-Fu, Andrew M. Fischer, Max Oidtmann, Ma Wei, Alexandre Papas, Camille Simon, Benno R. Weiner, Yang Hongwei. Lexington Books. pp. 90, 91, 264, 267, 146. ISBN 978-0739175309.
... 146, 151n36; between Muslim tradesmen and local women, 149n15; oral history of the first matrimonial alliances between Salar men and Tibetan women, ...
- ^ Nietupski, Paul K. (2015). "Chapter 6 Islam and Labrang Monastery A Muslim community in a Tibetan Buddhist Estate". In M Hille, Marie-Paule; Horlemann, Bianca; Nietupski, Paul K. (eds.). Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society: Multidisciplinary Approaches. Studies in Modern Tibetan Culture. Marie-Paule Hille, Bianca Horlemann, Paul K. Nietupski, Chang Chung-Fu, Andrew M. Fischer, Max Oidtmann, Ma Wei, Alexandre Papas, Camille Simon, Benno R. Weiner, Yang Hongwei. Lexington Books. pp. 90, 91, 264, 267, 146. ISBN 978-0739175309.
- ^ The Tibet Journal, Volume 20. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives. Library of Tibetan Works & Archives. 1995. p. 101.
Central Asian Sufi Masters who gave to the founder of the Chinese Qādiriyya his early training.25 Gladney wrote in his book Chinese Muslims that Afāq Khvāja preached to the northeastern Tibetans but he does not tell us what are his sources. ... The cities of northwestern China visited by the khvāja are Xining (in Qinghai), Hezhou (the old name for Linxia, the Chinese Mecca) in Gansu and Xunhua near the Gansu-Qinghai border where the Salar Turks live amidst a predominantly Tibetan Buddhist population. Gansu is a natural corridor linking China with Eastern Turkestan and Central Asia It is a ... passageway through which the silk road slipped between the Tibetan plateau to the west and the Mongolian grasslands to the north. In addition to the Chinese and the Tibetans , Gansu was also home to different people like the Salar Turks and the Dongxiang or Mongol Muslims, both preached to by Afāq Khvāja. ... (actually the city of Kuna according to Nizamüddin Hüsäyin.26 Although the Salars intermarried with the Tibetans, Chinese and Hui, they have maintained their customs until now. From the Mission d'Ollone who explored this area at the beginning of the century , we learn that some Chinese Muslims of this area married Tibetan women who had kept their religion , i . e . Lamaism , and that their sons were either Muslim or Buddhist. We are told for example that in one of these families, there was one son who was a Muslim and the other who became a Lama. Between the monastery of Lha-brang and the city of Hezhou (Linxia, it is also indicated that there were Muslims living in most of the Chinese and Tibetan...
CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ Friedrich Ratzel (1898). The history of mankind, Volume 3. Macmillan and co., ltd. p. 355. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Melvyn C. Goldstein; Dawei Sherap; William Siebenschuh; William R. Siebenschuh (2006). The A Tibetan Revolutionary: The Political Life and Times of Bapa Phüntso Wangye. University of California Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-520-24992-9. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Eliakim Littell; Robert S. Littell (1891). Littell's living age, Volume 191. T.H. Carter & Co. p. 606. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ The National review, Volume 23. W.H. Allen. 1894. p. 81. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ China Information Committee (1938). China at war, Volumes 1–2. The China Information Publishing Company. p. 54. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Lhasa. Concept Publishing Company. 1939. p. 100.
- ^ Teichman Eric (2009). Travels of a Consular Officer in Eastern Tibet. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 180. ISBN 978-1-110-31267-2. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Charles Bell (1992). Tibet Past and Present. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 243. ISBN 978-81-208-1048-8. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Ildikó Bellér-Hann (2008). Community matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: towards a historical anthropology of the Uyghur. BRILL. pp. 83–85. ISBN 978-90-04-16675-2. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f Bong, Inyoung A "White Race" without Supremacy: Russians, Racial Hybridity, and Liminality in the Chinese Literature of Manchukuo pp. 137–190 from Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Volume 26, No. 1, Spring 2014 p. 147.
- ^ Henry Lansdell (1894). Chinese Central Asia: A Ride to Little Tibet, Volume 2. Scribner. p. 77. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ James Hastings; John Alexander Selbie; Louis Herbert Gray (1916). Encyclopædia of religion and ethics, Volume 8. T. & T. Clark. p. 893. ISBN 9780567065094. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Martijn Theodoor Houtsma (1987). E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936, Volume 2. BRILL. p. 849. ISBN 978-90-04-08265-6. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Sven Anders Hedin (1899). Through Asia, Volume 2. Harper and brothers. p. 954. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Robyn R. Iredale; Naran Bilik; Fei Guo (2003). China's Minorities on the Move: Selected Case Studies. M.E. Sharpe. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-7656-1023-2. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ Günther Schlee (2002). Imagined Differences: Hatred and the Construction of Identity, Volume 2001. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4039-6031-3. Retrieved 30 July 2010.
- ^ "Global Mappings: Nanjing Anti-African Protests of 1988–89". Diaspora.northwestern.edu. 16 January 1989. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ a b Christian Science Monitor: "In China, mixed marriages can be a labor of love – In one major Chinese city, marriages between Chinese and Africans are on the rise. In a country known for monoculture, it isn't easy" By Yepoka Yeebo 21 September 2013
- ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1998). A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Bishop Henry McNeal Turner Studies in North American Black Religion Series. Volume 2 of A History of Christianity in Asia: 1500–1900. Volume 2 (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-57075-450-0. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (2005). A history of Christianity in Asia, Volume 2 (2 ed.). Orbis Books. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-57075-450-0. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Free China Review, Volume 11. W. Y. Tsao. 1961. p. 54. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Covell, Ralph R. (1998). Pentecost of the Hills in Taiwan: The Christian Faith Among the Original Inhabitants (illustrated ed.). Hope Publishing House. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-932727-90-9. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan (illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-230-61424-6. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Meiqi Lee (2004). Being Eurasian: memories across racial divides. Hong Kong University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-962-209-671-4.
EJ Eitel, in the late 1890s, claims that the 'half-caste population in Hong Kong' were from the earliest days of the settlement almost exclusively the offspring of liaisons between European men and women of outcast ethnic groups such as Tanka. Lethbridge refutes the theory saying it was based on a 'myth' propagated by xenophobic Cantonese to account for the establishment of the Hong Kong Eurasian community. Carl Smith's study in the late 1960s on the protected women seems, to some degree, support Eitel's theory. Smith says that the Tankas experienced certain restrictions within the traditional Chinese social structure. Custom precluded their intermarriage with the Cantonese and Hakka-speaking populations. The Tanka women did not have bound feet. Their opportunities for settlement on shore were limited. They were hence not as closely tied to Confucian ethics as other Chinese ethnic groups. Being a group marginal to the traditional Chinese society of the Puntis (Cantonese), they did not have the same social pressure in dealing with Europeans (CT Smith, Chung Chi Bulletin, 27). 'Living under the protection of a foreigner,' says Smith, 'could be a ladder to financial security, if not respectability, for some of the Tanka boat girls' (13 ).
- ^ Maria Jaschok; Suzanne Miers, eds. (1994). Women and Chinese patriarchy: submission, servitude, and escape. Zed Books. p. 223. ISBN 978-1-85649-126-6.
He states that they had a near-monopoly of the trade in girls and women, and that: The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day, almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka people. But, like the Tan-ka people themselves, they are happily under the influence of a process of continuous re-absorption in the mass of Chinese residents of the Colony (1895 p. 169)
- ^ Helen F. Siu (2011). Helen F. Siu (ed.). Merchants' Daughters: Women, Commerce, and Regional Culture in South. Hong Kong University Press. p. 305. ISBN 978-988-8083-48-0.
The half-caste population of Hongkong were . . . almost exclusively the offspring of these Tan-ka women. EJ Eitel, Europe in the History of Hongkong from the Beginning to the Year 1882 (Taipei: Chen-Wen Publishing Co., originally published in Hong Kong by Kelly and Walsh. 1895, 1968), 169.
- ^ Henry J. Lethbridge (1978). Hong Kong, stability and change: a collection of essays. Oxford University Press. p. 75.
The half-caste population in Hong Kong were, from the earliest days of the settlement of the Colony and down to the present day [1895], almost exclusively the off-spring of these Tan-ka people
- ^ Public Library Ernest John Eitel (1895). Europe in China: the history of Hongkong from the beginning to the year 1882. London: Luzac & Co. p. 169.
- ^ Weiss, A. M. (2008). "South Asian Muslims in Hong Kong: Creation of a 'Local Boy' Identity". Modern Asian Studies. 25 (3): 417. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013895.
- ^ Ina Baghdiantz McCabe, Gelina Harlaftis, Iōanna Pepelasē Minoglou (2005). Diaspora Entrepreneurial Networks: Four Centuries of History. Berg Publishers. p. 256. ISBN 978-1-85973-880-1.
- ^ Jonathan Porter (1996). Macau, the imaginary city: culture and society, 1557 to the present. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-2836-2.
- ^ macau – The Las Vegas of the East >>Inscrutable Chinese>>English>>北京仁和博苑中医药研究院 Archived 9 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Bjrhby.com. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Annabel Jackson (2003). Taste of Macau: Portuguese Cuisine on the China Coast (illustrated ed.). Hong Kong University Press. p. x. ISBN 978-962-209-638-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning, the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
- ^ João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Volume 74 of London School of Economics monographs on social anthropology (illustrated ed.). Berg. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
To be a Macanese is fundamentally to be from Macao with Portuguese ancestors, but not necessarily to be of Sino-Portuguese descent. The local community was born from Portuguese men. […] but in the beginning the woman was Goanese, Siamese, Indo-Chinese, Malay – they came to Macao in our boats. Sporadically it was a Chinese woman.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ C. A. Montalto de Jesus (1902). Historic Macao (2 ed.). Kelly & Walsh, Limited. p. 41. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
macao Japanese women.
- ^ Austin Coates (2009). A Macao Narrative. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. Hong Kong University Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-962-209-077-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Camões Center (Columbia University. Research Institute on International Change) (1989). Camões Center Quarterly, Volume 1. Volume 1 of Echoes: Classics of Hong Kong Culture and History. The Center. p. 29. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 39: When we established ourselves here, the Chinese ostracized us. The Portuguese had their wives, then, that came from abroad, but they could have no contact with the Chinese women, except the fishing folk, the tanka women and the female slaves. Only the lowest class of Chinese contacted with the Portuguese in the first centuries. But later the strength of Christianization, of the priests, started to convince the Chinese to become Catholic. […] But, when they started to be Catholics, they adopted Portuguese baptismal names and were ostracized by the Chinese Buddhists. So they joined the Portuguese community and their sons started having Portuguese education without a single drop of Portuguese blood.
- ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: I was personally told of people that, to this day, continue to hide the fact that their mothers had been lower-class Chinese women – often even tanka (fishing folk) women who had relations with Portuguese sailors and soldiers.
- ^ a b Society of Macau: Macanese People, Public Holidays in Macau, Tanka People. Alibris. ISBN 978-1-157-45360-4 Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164
- ^ a b João de Pina-Cabral, p. 165
- ^ João de Pina-Cabral, p. 164: Henrique de Senna Fernandes, another Macanese author, wrote a short story about a tanka girl who has an affair with a Portuguese sailor. In the end, the man returns to his native country and takes their little girl with him, leaving the mother abandoned and broken-hearted. As her sailorman picks up the child, A-Chan's words are: 'Cuidadinho ... cuidadinho' ('Careful ... careful'). She resigns herself to her fate, much as she may never have recovered from the blow (1978).
- ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 173: Her slave-like submissiveness is her only attraction to him. A-Chan thus becomes his slave/mistress, an outlet for suppressed sexual urges. The story is an archetypical tragedy of miscegenation. Just as the Tanka community despises A-Chan's cohabitation with a foreign barbarian, Manuel's colleagues mock his 'bad taste' ('gosto degenerado') (Senna Fernandes, 1978: 15) in having a tryst with a boat girl … As such, the Tanka girl is nonchalantly reified and dehumanized as a thing (coisa). Manuel reduces human relations to mere consumption not even of her physical beauty (which has been denied in the description of A-Chan), but her 'Orientalness' of being slave-like and submissive.
- ^ Christina Miu Bing Cheng, p. 170: We can trace this fleeting and shallow relationship in Henrique de Senna Fernandes' short story, A-Chan, A Tancareira, (Ah Chan, the Tanka Girl) (1978). Senna Fernandes (1923–), a Macanese, had written a series of novels set against the context of Macao and some of which were made into films.
- ^ a b c d Leupp, p. 52
- ^ a b c Leupp, p. 49
- ^ N. K. Mishra; Sabita Tripathy (2002). A Critical Response to Indian English Literature. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 59, 65, 68. ISBN 978-8126900824. Retrieved 1 June 2006.
- ^ Beckman, Karen Redrobe (2003), Vanishing Women: Magic, Film, and Feminism, Duke University Press, pp. 31–3, ISBN 0-8223-3074-1
- ^ Kent, Eliza F. (2004), Converting Women, Oxford University Press US, pp. 85–6, ISBN 0-19-516507-1
- ^ Kaul, Suvir (1996), "Review Essay: Colonial Figures and Postcolonial Reading", Diacritics, 26 (1): 74–89 [83–9], doi:10.1353/dia.1996.0005, S2CID 144798987
- ^ Kent, Eliza F. (2004), Converting Women, Oxford University Press US, pp. 85–6, ISBN 978-0-19-516507-4
- ^ Kaul, Suvir (1996), "Review Essay: Colonial Figures and Postcolonial Reading", Diacritics, 26 (1): 74–89 [83–9], doi:10.1353/dia.1996.0005, S2CID 144798987
- ^ Webster, Anthony (2006), The Debate on the Rise of the British Empire, Manchester University Press, pp. 132–3, ISBN 978-0-7190-6793-8
- ^ Carter, Sarah (1997). Capturing Women: The Manipulation of Cultural Imagery in Canada's Prairie West. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7735-1656-4.
- ^ Loomba, Ania (1998), Colonialism-postcolonialism, Routledge, pp. 79–80, ISBN 978-0-415-12809-4
- ^ Reina Lewis, Sara Mills (2003), Feminist Postcolonial Theory: A Reader, Taylor & Francis, pp. 451–3, ISBN 978-0-415-94275-1
- ^ a b Muslim Communities in Myanmar. ColorQ World
- ^ CHOWDHURY, RITA (18 November 2012). "The Assamese Chinese story". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ Das, Gaurav (22 October 2013). "Tracing roots from Hong Kong to Assam". The Times of India. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ editor (8 December 2010). "CHINESE-ASSAMESE: How To Stay Silent In Chinese". Manipur Online. Retrieved 17 May 2014.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- ^ MITRA, DOLA (29 November 2010). "How To Stay Silent In Chinese". Outlook. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ Sharma, Anup (22 October 2013). "HOMECOMING: CHINESE TO REVISIT BIRTHPLACE IN ASSAM". the pioneer. Guwahati. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ "HOMECOMING: CHINESE TO REVISIT BIRTHPLACE IN ASSAM". The Telegraph. Calcutta, India. 18 April 2010. Archived from the original on 29 October 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ "Assamese of Chinese origin facing severe identity crisis". oneindia. 17 May 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ Bora, Bijay Sankar (25 May 2015). "Taunted as spies, China war victims seethe silently". The Tribune. Guwahati. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ TALUKDAR, SUSHANTA (8 November 2010). "Assamese of Chinese origin can visit State: Gogoi". The Hindu. GUWAHATI. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
- ^ leon (29 April 2010). "Sino-Indian war in 1962 – Bitter Memories". Dhapa.
May 17, 2014
- ^ Sarat Ch; ra Roy (Rai Bahadur), eds. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) DURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, inquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
- ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1909). Castes and tribes of southern India, Volume 2 (PDF). Government press. p. 99. Archived from the original on 18 May 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
99 CHINESE-TAMIL CROSS in the Nilgiri jail. It is recorded * that, in 1868, twelve of the Chinamen " broke out during a very stormy night, and parties of armed police were sent out to scour the hills for them. They were at last arrested in Malabar a fortnight
- ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …, Volumes 2–3. MADRAS: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 31. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
ON A CHINESE-TAMIL CKOSS. Halting in the course of a recent anthropological expedition on the western side of the Nilgiri plateau, in the midst of the Government Cinchona plantations, I came across a small settlement of Chinese, who have squatted for some years on the slopes of the hills between Naduvatam and Gudalur, and developed, as the result of 'marriage' with Tamil pariah women, into a colony, earning an honest livelihood by growing vegetables, cultivating cofl'ce on a small scale, and adding to their income from these sources by the economic products of the cow. An ambassador was sent to this miniature Chinese Court with a suggestion that the men should, in return for monies, present themselves before me with a view to their measurements being recorded. The reply which came back was in its way racially characteristic as between Hindus and Chinese. In the case of the former, permission to make use of their bodies for the purposes of research depends essentially on a pecuniary transaction, on a scale varying from two to eight annas. The Chinese, on the other hand, though poor, sent a courteous message to the effect that they did not require payment in money, but would be perfectly happy if I would give them, as a memento, copies of their photographs. The measurements of a single family, excepting a widowed daughter whom I was not permitted to see, and an infant in arms, who was pacified with cake while I investigated its mother, are recorded in the following table:
- ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 31. ISBN 978-81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Government Museum (Madras, India) (1897). Bulletin …. 2–3. Madras: Printed by the Superintendent, Govt. Press. p. 32. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ Edgar Thurston (2004). Badagas and Irulas of Nilgiris, Paniyans of Malabar: A Cheruman Skull, Kuruba Or Kurumba – Summary of Results. Volume 2, Issue 1 of Bulletin (Government Museum (Madras, India)). Asian Educational Services. p. 32. ISBN 978-81-206-1857-2. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Edgar Thurston; K. Rangachari (1987). Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Nature. 84 (illustrated ed.). Asian Educational Services. pp. 98–99. Bibcode:1910Natur..84..365.. doi:10.1038/084365a0. ISBN 978-81-206-0288-5. S2CID 3947850. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ Edgar Thurston (1897). Note on tours along the Malabar coast. Volumes 2-3 of Bulletin, Government Museum (Madras, India). Superintendent, Government Press. p. 31. Retrieved 17 May 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Sarat Chandra Roy (Rai Bahadur) (1954). Man in India, Volume 34, Issue 4. A.K. Bose. p. 273. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
Thurston found the Chinese element to be predominant among the offspring as will be evident from his description. 'The mother was a typical dark-skinned Tamil Paraiyan. The colour of the children was more closely allied to the yellowish
- ^ Mahadeb Prasad Basu (1990). An anthropological study of bodily height of Indian population. Punthi Pustak. p. 84. ISBN 9788185094335. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
Sarkar (1959) published a pedigree showing Tamil-Chinese-English crosses in a place located in the Nilgiris. Thurston (1909) mentioned an instance of a mating between a Chinese male with a Tamil Pariah female. Man (Deka 1954) described
- ^ Sarat Ch; ra Roy (Rai Bahadur), eds. (1959). Man in India, Volume 39. A. K. Bose. p. 309. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
d: TAMIL-CHINESE CROSSES IN THE NILGIRIS, MADRAS. S. S. Sarkar* (Received on 21 September 1959) iURING May 1959, while working on the blood groups of the Kotas of the Nilgiri Hills in the village of Kokal in Gudalur, enquiries were made regarding the present position of the Tamil-Chinese cross described by Thurston (1909). It may be recalled here that Thurston reported the above cross resulting from the union of some Chinese convicts, deported from the Straits Settlement, and local Tamil Paraiyan
- ^ Manish, Sai; Anzar, Khalid (16 September 2017). "Why Buddhist women are marrying Muslim men in Ladakh". Business Standard. New Delhi , Leh.
- ^ Raj, Suhasini; Gettleman, Jeffrey (12 October 2017). "On the Run for Love: Couple Bridges a Buddhist-Muslim Divide". The New York Times. LADAKH REGION, India.
- ^ Saha, Abhishek Saha (11 September 2017). "Buddhist woman's wedding with Muslim sparks tension in Ladakh". Hindustan Times. Srinagar.
- ^ "Muslim-Buddhist Intermarriage in Ladakh". INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR ETHNO-RELIGIOUS MEDIATION. INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR ETHNO-RELIGIOUS MEDIATION. 22 December 2017.
- ^ KHANDELWAL, TARA (11 September 2017). "Ladakh Tense Over Buddhist Woman's Marriage With Muslim Man". shethepeople.
- ^ Varagur, Krithika (3 April 2018). "Communal Tensions Rattle an Indian Himalayan Region". Voice of America. LEH, INDIA.
- ^ Pandit, M Saleem P (12 September 2017). "Ladakh tense over Muslim-Buddhist 'love jihad' marriage". The Times of India.
- ^ Bonta, Bruce (17 March 2011). "BUDDHIST AND MUSLIM FAMILIES IN LADAKH [JOURNAL ARTICLE REVIEW]". UNC Greensboro. UNC Greensboro.
- ^ Iqbal, Naveed (15 September 2017). "An inter-religion marriage triggers communal divide in Leh, and exodus". The Indian Express. Leh.
- ^ DRIEM, George van (June 2007). "The Diversity of the Tibeto-Burman Language Family and the Linguistic Ancestry of Chinese". Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics. Li Fang-Kuei Society for Chinese Linguistics Center for Chinese Linguistics, HKUST. 1 (2): 232–233. ISSN 1933-6985. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021.
- ^ Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Van Driem, George (29 May 2020). "Munda languages are father tongues, but Japanese and Korean are not". Evolutionary Human Sciences. Published online by Cambridge University Press. 2 (E19). doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.14. S2CID 219877228.
- ^ Driem, George van (January 2007). "Austroasiatic phylogeny and the Austroasiatic homeland in light of recent population genetic studies" (PDF). Mon-Khmer Studies. Leiden University, The Netherlands. 37: 4. Archived from the original on 2021.
- ^ Langstieh, Banrida T. (2020). "CHAPTER % Peopling of Shillong Plateau A Molecular Anthropological Insight". In Marak, Queenbala; Chaudhuri, Sarit K. (eds.). The Cultural Heritage of Meghalaya (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1000071825.
- ^ Driem, George van (2013). "Trans-Himalayan". In Owen-Smith, Thomas; Hill, Nathan (eds.). Trans-Himalayan Linguistics: Historical and Descriptive Linguistics of the Himalayan Area. Volume 266 of Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs [TiLSM] (illustrated, reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 34. ISBN 9783110310832.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Driem, George L. van (2019). The Tale of Tea: A Comprehensive History of Tea from Prehistoric Times to the Present Day. BRILL. p. 10. ISBN 978-9004393608.
- ^ DRIEM, GEORGE VAN (2011). "3. POPULATION GENETICS, THE LAST ICE AGE AND MORE ARCHAEOLOGY". Himalayan Languages and Linguistics: Studies in Phonology, Semantics, Morphology and Syntax. Brill's Tibetan Studies Library. Mark Turin, Bettina Zeisler. BRILL. p. 33. ISBN 978-9004216532.
- ^ Fisher, M. H. (2007). "Excluding and Including "Natives of India": Early-Nineteenth-Century British-Indian Race Relations in Britain". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 27 (2): 301–312. doi:10.1215/1089201x-2007-007.
- ^ Tambe, A. (2005). "The Elusive Ingenue: A Transnational Feminist Analysis of European Prostitution in Colonial Bombay". Gender & Society. 19 (2): 160–179. doi:10.1177/0891243204272781. S2CID 144250345.
- ^ Enloe, Cynthia H. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives. University of California Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-520-22071-3.
- ^ Leupp, p. 53
- ^ Leupp, p. 48
- ^ Leupp, p. 50
- ^ Michael S. Laver (2011). The Sakoku Edicts and the Politics of Tokugawa Hegemony. Cambria Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-60497-738-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ In the Name of God: The Making of Global Christianity By Edmondo F. Lupieri, James Hooten, Amanda Kunder [7]
- ^ "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". 26 May 2013.
- ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (26 May 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know…". Japan Probe. 10 May 2007. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
- ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. JSTOR 25066328.
- ^ Jōchi Daigaku (2004). Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present, Volume 59, Issues 3–4. Sophia University. p. 463. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Michael Weiner, ed. (2004). Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern Japan: Imagined and imaginary minorites (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 408. ISBN 978-0-415-20857-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates, Jr., eds. (2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 479. ISBN 978-0-19-517055-9. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates, eds. (2010). Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
- ^ 来源：人民网-国家人文历史 (10 July 2013). "日本性宽容："南洋姐"输出数十万". Ta Kung Pao 大公报.
- ^ Fischer-Tiné 2003, pp. 163–90.
- ^ "The National Eugenic Law" The 107th law that Japanese Government promulgated in 1940 (国民優生法) 第一条 本法ハ悪質ナル遺伝性疾患ノ素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ防遏スルト共ニ健全ナル素質ヲ有スル者ノ増加ヲ図リ以テ国民素質ノ向上ヲ期スルコトヲ目的トス, Kimura, Jurisprudence in Genetics
- ^ Robertson, J. (2002). "Blood talks: Eugenic modernity and the creation of new Japanese" (PDF). History and Anthropology. 13 (3): 191–216 (205–206). doi:10.1080/0275720022000025547. PMID 19499628. S2CID 41340161. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Crossing National Borders: Human Migration Issues in Northeast Asia, edited by Tsuneo Akaha, Anna Vassilieva [8]
- ^ Yuki Tanaka, Hidden Horrors, Japanese War Crimes in World War II, 1996, pp. 94–98., Evidence documenting sex-slaves coercion revealed, "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC & 8 December 2000;
"Historians say thousands of women – as many as 200,000 by some accounts – mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner & 8 March 2007;
AP & 7 March 2007;
CNN & 29 March 2001 - ^ Herbert Bix, Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, 2001, p. 538, citing Kinkabara Samon and Takemae Eiji, Showashi : kokumin no naka no haran to gekido no hanseiki-zohoban, 1989, p. 244.
- ^ a b A Heterology of American GIs during World War II Archived 7 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Xavier Guillaume, Department of Political Science, University of Geneva July 2003, (H-NET review of Peter Schrijvers. "The GI War against Japan: American Soldiers in Asia and the Pacific during World War II". New York: New York University Press, 2002) The citation is cited to p. 212 of "The GI War against Japan".
- ^ Molasky, Michael S. (1999). The American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa: Literature and Memory. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-415-19194-4.
- ^ Molasky, Michael S.; Rabson, Steve (2000). Southern Exposure: Modern Japanese Literature from Okinawa. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8248-2300-9.
- ^ Sheehan, Susan D.; Elizabeth, Laura; Selden, Hein Mark. "Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power": 18. Cite journal requires
|journal=(help) - ^ Ijime: A Social Illness of Japan by Akiko Dogakinai. Lclark.edu (26 December 1994). Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ "Press Conference by Mr Doudou Diène, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights". Archived from the original on 29 March 2007. Retrieved 5 January 2007.
- ^ "Japan racism 'deep and profound'". BBC News (11 July 2005). Retrieved 5 January 2007.
- ^ [https://web.archive.org/web/20070519010856/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/member/member.html?nn20051018a7.htm Archived 19 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine "Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race'"], Japan Times, 18 October 2005
- ^ McLelland 2010, p. 518.
- ^ McLelland 2010, p. 529.
- ^ McLelland 2010, pp. 519–520.
- ^ "Muslim society in Korea is developing and growing". Pravda. 6 November 2002. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009.
- ^ Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7007-1605-0.
- ^ Baker, Don (Winter 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly. Archived from the original on 17 May 2007. Retrieved 23 April 2007.
- ^ "덕수장씨". Rootsinfo.co.kr (Korean language). Archived from the original on 19 November 2005. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ Eui-Young Yu and Earl H. Phillips, Korean Women in Transition: At Home and Abroad, Center for Korean-American and Korean Studies, California State University, Los Angeles, 1987, p. 185 ISBN 0-942831-00-4.
- ^ Japan PM: Moving US base impossible CCTV News – CNTV English. (5 May 2010) Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ^ Hae-in, Shin (3 August 2006). "Korea Greets New Era of Multiculturalism". The Korea Herald. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Lee, H. K. (2008). "International marriage and the state in South Korea: Focusing on governmental policy". Citizenship Studies. 12: 107–123. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. S2CID 145312798.
- ^ Hye-Kyung Lee (2008). "International Marriage and the State in South Korea|" (PDF). Citizenship Studies. 12: 107–123. doi:10.1080/13621020701794240. S2CID 145312798. Retrieved 22 December 2008.
- ^ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Aparc.stanford.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Park Chung Myth of Pure-Blood Nationalism Blocks Multi-Ethnic Society Archived 25 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. The Korean Times. 14 August 2006
- ^ "'코시안'(Kosian) 쓰지 마라! (Do not use Kosian)". Naver news (in Korean) 23 February 2006. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2006. See English-language reaction on The Marmot's Hole
- ^ Do not use the new word Kosian, AMNESTY International South Korea Section, 2006, 07.
- ^ "Ward's Win Brings 'Race' to the Fore". The Korea Times. 9 February 2006. Archived from the original on 21 May 2009.
- ^ "For mixed-race children in Korea, happiness is too far away". Yonhap News. Archived from the original on 1 March 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2006.
- ^ Daniels, Timothy P. (2005). Building Cultural Nationalism in Malaysia. Routledge. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-415-94971-2.
- ^ Yegar, Moshe (1972). The Muslims of Burma: a Study of a Minority Group. Schriftenreihe des Südasien-Instituts der Universität Heidelberg. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 6. ISBN 978-3-447-01357-4. OCLC 185556301.
- ^ Lay, Pathi U Ko (1973). "Twentieth Anniversary Special Edition of Islam Damma Beikman". Myanmar Pyi and Islamic Religion: 109–11.
- ^ T. V. Sanjiva Row; Pinayur Ramanatha Aiyar; Palangamal Hari Rao (1912). The All India Digest, Section Ii (civil), 1811–1911, Volume 2. T. A. Venkasawmy Row and T. S. Krishnasawmy Row. p. 577.
- ^ a b Thangaraj, K.; Singh, L.; Reddy, A. G.; Rao, V. R.; Sehgal, S. C.; Underhill, P. A.; et al. (2003). "Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population". Current Biology. 13 (2): 86–93. doi:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01336-2. PMID 12546781. S2CID 12155496.
- ^ a b :: Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission, R.O.C. :: Archived 4 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Ocac.gov.tw (24 August 2004). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
- ^ Historical Timeline Of The Royal Sultanate Of Sulu Including Related Events Of Neighboring Peoplesby Josiah C. Seasite.niu.edu (30 August 2000). Retrieved 14 August 2010.
- ^ Reid, Anthony (1990). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: The lands below the winds. Volume 1 of Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680 (illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-300-04750-9. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ MacLeod, Murdo J.; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida, eds. (1998). European Intruders and Changes in Behaviour and Customs in Africa, America, and Asia Before 1800. Volume 30 of An Expanding World, the European Impact on World History, 1450–1800, Vol 30 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Ashgate. p. 636. ISBN 978-0-86078-522-4. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Hughes, Sarah S.; Hughes, Brady, eds. (1995). Women in World History: Readings from prehistory to 1500. Volume 1 of Sources and studies in world history (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-56324-311-0. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
|volume=has extra text (help) - ^ Tingley, Nancy (2009). Asia Society. Museum (ed.). Arts of Ancient Viet Nam: From River Plain to Open Sea. Andreas Reinecke, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston (illustrated ed.). Asia Society. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-300-14696-7. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ Hamilton, Alexander (1997). Smithies, Michael (ed.). Alexander Hamilton: A Scottish Sea Captain in Southeast Asia, 1689–1723 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Silkworm Books. p. 205. ISBN 978-9747100457. Retrieved 10 December 2014.
- ^ the non-Jewish members of the European Volk are Aryans. . . .
Eric Ehrenreich (10 October 2007). The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution. Indiana University Press. pp. 9, 10. ISBN 978-0-253-11687-1. - ^ S. H. Milton (2001). ""Gypsies" as social outsiders in Nazi Germany". In Robert Gellately; Nathan Stoltzfus (eds.). Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. pp. 216, 231. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2.
- ^ Meldungen aus dem Reich: Auswahl aus den geheimen Lageberichten des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS 1939–1944 (11965; Reports from the Reich: Selection from the secret reviews of the situation of the SS 1939–1944; 1984 extended to 14 vols.), Heinz Boberach (ed. and compilator), Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag (dtv), 21968, (dtv-dokumente; vol. 477) p. 208. ISBN B0000BSLXR
- ^ The earlier deportations of Jews and Gentiles of Jewish descent from Austria and Pomerania (both to occupied Poland) as well as Baden and the Palatinate (both to occupied France) had remained a spontaneous episode.
- ^ At the Wannsee Conference, the participants decided to order the deportation of persons who were classified as Jews, but they decided not to order the deportation of Jews who were married to persons who were classified as Aryans, however, this exemption from deportation would only be granted after a divorce. In October 1943, a new law, facilitating compulsory divorce by order of the state, was about to be passed, however, Hitler never granted the competent referees an audience. Pressure by the NSDAP headquarters in early 1944 also failed. Cf. Uwe Dietrich Adam, Judenpolitik im Dritten Reich, Düsseldorf: 2003, pp. 222–234. ISBN 3-7700-4063-5
- ^ Beate Meyer, Die Verfolgung und Ermordung der Hamburger Juden 1933–1945, Landeszentrale für politische Bildung (ed.), Hamburg: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung, 2006, p. 83. ISBN 3-929728-85-0
- ^ All in all, in the summer of 1945, 8,000 Berliners who the Nazis had classified as Jews because they had 3 or 4 Jewish grandparents were still alive. Their personal faith – whether it is Jewish, Protestant, Catholic or irreligionist – is mostly not recorded, because only the Nazi files which classify people according to Nazi racial definitions contain reports on them. 4,700 out of the 8,000 survived because they were living in mixed marriages. 1,400 of them survived by living in hiding, out of 5,000 who tried. 1,900 of them had returned from Theresienstadt. Cf. Hans-Rainer Sandvoß, Widerstand in Wedding und Gesundbrunnen, Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand (ed.), Berlin: Gedenkstätte Deutscher Widerstand, 2003, (Schriftenreihe über den Widerstand in Berlin von 1933 bis 1945; No. 14), p. 302. ISSN 0175-3592
- ^ a b Diemut Majer (2003). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945. JHU Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-8018-6493-3.
- ^ Majer, Diemut (22 October 2017). "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945. JHU Press. ISBN 9780801864933.
- ^ Leila J. Rupp, Mobilizing Women for War, p 125, ISBN 0-691-04649-2
- ^ Robert Edwin Hertzstein, The War That Hitler Won p139 ISBN 0-399-11845-4
- ^ Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. January 2007. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89604-712-9.
- ^ Majer, "Non-Germans" Under the Third Reich, p.855
- ^ Grossmann, Atina (1995). "A Question of Silence: The Rape of German Women by Occupation Soldiers". October. 72: 43–63. doi:10.2307/778926. JSTOR 778926.
- ^ Protecting Motherhood Women and the Family in the Politics of Postwar West Germany Robert G. Moeller UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft3c6004gk;chunk.id=0;doc.view=print
- ^ Hordes of Rapists: The Instrumentalization of Sexual Violence in German Cold War Anti-Communist Discourses* by Júlia Garraio https://journals.openedition.org/rccsar/476
- ^ After Unity Reconfiguring German Identities 1997
- ^ Cf. the Bundesgesetz über die Anerkennung freier Ehen (as of 23 June 1950, Federal law on recognition of free marriages).
- ^ Asia and the Great War, A Shared History By Guoqi Xu · 2017
- ^ Race, Empire and First World War Writing - Page 60, Santanu Das 2011
- ^ Denis Sinor (1990). The Cambridge of early Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-521-24304-9.
- ^ Origins and Language. Source: U.S. Library of Congress.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b A Country Study: Hungary. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1990. ISBN 978-0-16-029202-6. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
- ^ Józsa Hévizi Autonomies in Europe and Hungary. (PDF). Corvinus Society (2004)
- ^ National and historical symbols of Hungary. Nemzetijelkepek.hu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Richard Bessel, Dirk Schumann Life after death: approaches to a cultural and social history of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s. (2003). Cambridge University Press. p. 143. ISBN 0-521-00922-7
- ^ Braham, Randolph L. – Tibori Szabó, Zoltán, A Magyarországi Holokauszt Földrajzi Enciklopediája [The Geographic Encyclopedia of the Holocaust in Hungary]. Budapest:Park Publishing, 3 vol. (2006), Vol 1, Borsod
- ^ Kees Versteegh, et al. Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, BRILL, 2006.
- ^ Izquierdo Labrado, Julio. "La esclavitud en Huelva y Palos (1570–1587)" (in Spanish). Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ Salloum, Habeeb. "The impact of the Arabic language and culture on English and other European languages". The Honorary Consulate of Syria. Archived from the original on 30 June 2008. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ "Real Academia Española". Archived from the original on 4 July 2012. Retrieved 9 December 2009.
- ^ Robert Lacey (1983), Aristocrats, p. 67, Little, Brown and Company
- ^ de Larramendi, Manuel Corografía de la muy noble y muy leal provincia de Guipúzcoa, Bilbao, 1986, facsimile edition of that from Editorial Ekin, Buenos Aires, 1950. (Also published by Tellechea Idígoras, San Sebastián, 1969.) Quoted in La idea de España entre los vascos de la Edad Moderna, by Jon Arrieta Alberdi, Anales 1997–1998, Real Sociedad Económica Valenciana de Amigos del País
- ^ "LIMPIEZA DE SANGRE – Auñamendi Eusko Entziklopedia". euskomedia.org. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^ a b Adams, S. M.; Bosch, E.; Balaresque, P. L.; Ballereau, S. P. J.; Lee, A. C.; Arroyo, E.; López-Parra, A. M.; Aler, M.; Grifo, M. S. G. (2008). "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 83 (6): 725–736. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.11.007. PMC 2668061. PMID 19061982.
- ^ Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Oefner, Peter J; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M; Underhill, Peter A (2004). "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: Implications for population demography". European Journal of Human Genetics. 12 (10): 855–63. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225. PMID 15280900.
- ^ González, AM; Brehm, A; Pérez, JA; Maca-Meyer, N; Flores, C; Cabrera, VM (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 120 (4): 391–404. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10168. PMID 12627534.
- ^ Giacomo, F.; Luca, F.; Popa, L. O.; Akar, N.; Anagnou, N.; Banyko, J.; Brdicka, R.; Barbujani, G.; Papola, F.; et al. (2004). "Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe". Human Genetics. 115 (5): 357–71. doi:10.1007/s00439-004-1168-9. PMID 15322918. S2CID 18482536.
- ^ Sutton, WK; Knight, A; Underhill, PA; Neulander, JS; Disotell, TR; Mountain, JL (2006). "Toward resolution of the debate regarding purported crypto-Jews in a spanish-American population: Evidence from the Y chromosome". Annals of Human Biology. 33 (1): 100–11. doi:10.1080/03014460500475870. PMID 16500815. S2CID 26716816.
- ^ Zalloua, Pierre A.; Platt, Daniel E.; El Sibai, Mirvat; Khalife, Jade; Makhoul, Nadine; Haber, Marc; Xue, Yali; Izaabel, Hassan; Bosch, Elena; et al. (2008). "Identifying Genetic Traces of Historical Expansions: Phoenician Footprints in the Mediterranean". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 83 (5): 633–42. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.10.012. PMC 2668035. PMID 18976729.
- ^ "La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ("The Sephardic result may be overestimated, since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East"). ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? "Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos" (Puts Calafell in doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from)" Yanes, Javier (4 December 2008) Tres culturas en el ADN. Público (Spain)
- ^ Saey, Tina Hesman (3 January 2009). "Spanish Inquisition couldn't quash Moorish, Jewish genes". ScienceNews. 175: 1. doi:10.1002/scin.2009.5591750111.
We think it might be an over estimate .. The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label
- ^ "El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distortions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago" Caceres, Pedro (4 December 2008) Uno de cada tres españoles tiene marcadores genéticos de Oriente Medio o el Magreb. El Mundo (Spain)
- ^ Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia , New Scientist, 4 December 2008.
- ^ Capelli, Cristian; Onofri, Valerio; Brisighelli, Francesca; Boschi, Ilaria; Scarnicci, Francesca; Masullo, Mara; Ferri, Gianmarco; Tofanelli, Sergio; et al. (2009). "Moors and Saracens in Europe: Estimating the medieval North African male legacy in southern Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics. 17 (6): 848–52. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2008.258. PMC 2947089. PMID 19156170.
- ^ Emma Blake, Emma (2008). "The Familiar Honeycomb: Byzantine Era Reuse of Sicily's Prehistoric Rock-Cut Tombs". In Ruth M. Van Dyke, Susan E. Alcock (ed.). Archaeologies of Memory. Blackwell Publishers. p. 201. doi:10.1002/9780470774304.ch10. ISBN 978-0-470-77430-4.
- ^ Alex E. Felice, "Genetic origin of contemporary Maltese," The Sunday Times (of Malta), 5 August 2007, last visited 5 August 2007
- ^ Italian women win cash for wartime rapes Archived 15 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ "1952: Il caso delle "marocchinate" al Parlamento". Retrieved 22 November 2008.
- ^ Gribanova, Lyubov "Дети-метисы в России: свои среди чужих" Archived 4 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine (in Russian). Nashi Deti Project. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
- ^ "Love and Race in Modern Russia". The Moscow Times. 14 February 2017.
- ^ See generally Jay Winik (2007), The Great Upheaval.
- ^ Donald Quataert (2000). The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-63328-4.
- ^ "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
- ^ "The Ottoman Empire’s Life-or-Death Race". Smithsonian. 22 March 2012
- ^ Anglo-Indians. Movinghere.org.uk. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Asians in Britain: Their Social, Cultural and Political Lives. Fathom.com. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Fisher, Michael Herbert (2006). Counterflows to Colonialism. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-7824-154-8.
- ^ "Inter-Ethnic Marriage: 2% of all Marriages are Inter-Ethnic". National Statistics. 21 March 2005. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Bland, L. (2005). "White Women and Men of Colour: Miscegenation Fears in Britain after the Great War". Gender & History. 17: 29–61. doi:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2005.00371.x.
- ^ Major new study reveals the rise of mixed-race Britain. Some ethnic groups 'will disappear', The Observer, 18 January 2009
- ^ Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery, BBC, 7 September 2009
- ^ "Horrible Traffic in Circassian Women—Infanticide in Turkey," New York Daily Times, 6 August 1856. Chnm.gmu.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Soldier Khan. Avalanchepress.com. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ ''When europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed'' Archived 25 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Researchnews.osu.edu. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
- ^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 289–90. ISBN 978-1-57607-204-2.
- ^ Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf (2004). The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 172–4. ISBN 978-1-57607-204-2.
- ^ a b Richards, M.; Rengo, C.; Cruciani, F.; Gratrix, F.; Wilson, J. F.; Scozzari, R.; MacAulay, V.; Torroni, A. (2003). "Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 1058–1064. doi:10.1086/374384. PMC 1180338. PMID 12629598.
- ^ Zentall, S. (1975). "Optimal stimulation as theoretical basis of hyperactivity". The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 45 (4): 549–563. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1975.tb01185.x. PMID 1180338.
- ^ John Lewis Burckhardt (2005) [1829]. "Description of a Journey from Upper Egypt through the Deserts of Nubia to Berber and Suakin, and from thence to Djidda in Arabia. Performed in the Year 1814.". Travels in Nubia. The University of Adelaide Library.
- ^ "Crusaders 'left genetic legacy'". BBC News. 27 March 2008.
- ^ United Arab Emirates, US Department of State
- ^ Protection Act of 2000: Trafficking in Persons Report 2007, US Department of State
- ^ Country Narratives: Near East, US Department of State
- ^ My Promised Land, by Ari Shavit, (London 2014)
- ^ Azoulay, Yuval. "Justice Ministry drafts civil marriage law for 'refuseniks'". Haaretz.
- ^ "75 Percent of Israeli Jews Oppose Intermarriage, New Poll Says". The Jewish Daily Forward. 22 August 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
- ^ "'Protecting' Jewish girls from Arabs". The Jerusalem Post. 18 September 2009.
- ^ Cook, Jonathan. "Israeli drive to prevent Jewish girls dating Arabs". The National.
- ^ Reider, Dimi (4 February 2010). "Tel Aviv presents: Municipal program to prevent Arab boys from dating Jewish girls". Coteret.
- ^ Sobelman, Batsheba (18 August 2014). "Right-wing extremists can't break the love of a Muslim man and Jewish woman in Israel". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 24 August 2014.
- ^ "Israeli press review: Minister calls marriages with non-Jews 'a second Holocaust'". Middle East Eye.
- ^ "Racism in Israel". Open Democracy.
- ^ Sharon, Jeremy. "Lehava head Bentzi Gopstein indicted for incitement to terror, racism". The Jerusalem Post.
- ^ Sullivan, Rodney (1993). "'It had to happen': the Gamboas and Australian–Philippine interactions". In Reynaldo C. Ileto; Rodney Sullivan (eds.). Discovering Australasia: Essays on Philippine-Australian Interactions. James Cook University. p. 112.
- ^ "Calwell Says 'No Harlem in Australia'". The Sydney Morning Herald. 23 November 1949.
- ^ Tīpuna, ancestors, grandparents "Māori Dictionary". Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ Sharp, Andrew (1991). Justice and the Māori. Auckland: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–44.
- ^ Spoonley, Paul (1993). Racism and Ethnicity. Auckland: Oxford University Press. pp. 38–46.
- ^ Spoonley, Paul (1993). Racism and Ethnicity. Auckland: Oxford University Press. pp. 38–39.
- ^ "Harawira comments hurt race relations". The New Zealand Herald. NZPA. 4 August 2010. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
- ^ Sá, Lúcia. Rain Forest Literature: Amazonian Texts and Latin American Culture. Minneapolis, Minnesota: U of Minnesota Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8166-4325-7
- ^ Hispanic Origin and Race of Coupled Households: 2000 U.S. Census. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
- ^ "More black women consider 'dating out'". USA Today. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
- ^
