Grèce

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Répiblique hellénique
Ελληνική Δημοκρατία  ( grec )
Ellinikí Dimokratía
Devise :  Ελευθερία ή Θάνατος
Elefthería í Thánatos
(" La liberté ou la mort ")
Hymne :  Ύμνος εις την Ελευθερίαν
mnos est tin Eleftherían
(" Hymne à la Liberté ")
EU-Greece.svg
EU-Greece (orthographic projection).svg
Localisation de la Grèce (vert foncé)

– en Europe  (vert clair & gris foncé)
– dans l' Union européenne  (vert clair)

Capitale
et plus grande ville
Athènes
37°58′N 23°43′E / 37.967°N 23.717°E / 37.967; 23.717
Langue officielle
et langue nationale
grec
Religion
(2017)
Démonyme(s)grec
GouvernementRépublique parlementaire unitaire
•  Président
Katerina Sakellaropoulou
Kyriakos Mitsotakis
Konstantinos Tasoulas
Corps législatifParlement hellénique
Historique de l'établissement
25 mars 1821 (date traditionnelle du début de la guerre d'indépendance grecque ), 15 janvier 1822 ( déclaration officielle )
•  Reconnu
3 février 1830
11 juin 1975
Zone
• Le total
131 957 km 2 (50 949 milles carrés) [4] ( 95e )
• L'eau (%)
1,51 (à partir de 2015) [5]
Population
• Estimation 2020
Neutral decrease10 718 565 [6] ( 85e )
• Recensement de 2011
10 816 286 [7]
• Densité
82 [8] /km 2 (212,4/mi²) ( 98e )
PIB  ( PPA )Estimation 2021
• Le total
Increase339,668 milliards de dollars [9]
• Par habitant
Increase31 821 $ [9]
PIB  (nominal)Estimation 2021
• Le total
Increase211,645 milliards de dollars [9]
• Par habitant
Increase19 827 $ [9]
Gini  (2020)Negative increase 31,4 [10]
moyen
IDH  (2019)Increase 0,888 [11]
très élevé  ·  32e
MonnaieEuro ( ) ( EUR )
Fuseau horaireUTC -02:00 ( heure d'Europe de l'Est )
• Été ( heure d'été )
UTC +03:00 ( heure d'été d'Europe de l'Est )
Format de datejj - mm - aaaa ( AD )
Côté conduitedroit
Indicatif d'appel+30
Code ISO 3166GR
TLD Internet
  1. Le domaine .eu est également utilisé, comme dans d'autres États membres de l' Union européenne .

Grèce ( grec : Ελλάδα , romaniséElláda ,[eˈlaða] ), officiellement la République hellénique , [b] est un pays situé en Europe du Sud-Est . Sa population est d'environ 10,7 millions en 2018; Athènes est sa plus grande et sa capitale, suivie de Thessalonique . Située à la pointe sud des Balkans , la Grèce est située au carrefour de l'Europe, de l'Asie et de l'Afrique. Il partage des frontières terrestres avec l' Albanie au nord-ouest, la Macédoine du Nord et la Bulgarie au nord et la Turquie au nord-est. La mer Égée s'étend à l'est du continent , lala mer Ionienne à l'ouest, la mer de Crète et la mer Méditerranée au sud. La Grèce a le plus long littoral du bassin méditerranéen et le 11e littoral le plus long du monde avec une longueur de 13 676 km (8 498 mi), avec de nombreuses îles , dont 227 sont habitées. Quatre-vingt pour cent de la Grèce est montagneuse, le mont Olympe étant le plus haut sommet à 2 918 mètres (9 573 pieds). Le pays se compose de neuf régions géographiques traditionnelles : la Macédoine , la Grèce centrale , le Péloponnèse , la Thessalie , l' Épire , leles îles de la mer Égée (y compris le Dodécanèse et les Cyclades ), la Thrace , la Crète et les îles Ioniennes .

La Grèce est considérée comme le berceau de la civilisation occidentale , étant le berceau de la démocratie , de la philosophie occidentale , de la littérature occidentale , de l' historiographie , des sciences politiques , des grands principes scientifiques et mathématiques , du théâtre et des Jeux Olympiques . A partir du VIIIe siècle avant J.-C., les Grecs ont été organisés dans diverses cités-états indépendants, appelés poleis (singuliers polis ), qui enjambait la Méditerranée et la mer Noire . Philippe II de Macédoinea uni la majeure partie de la Grèce actuelle au quatrième siècle avant JC, avec son fils Alexandre le Grand conquérant rapidement une grande partie du monde antique, de la Méditerranée orientale à l'Inde. La période hellénistique qui a suivi a vu l'apogée de la culture et de l'influence grecques dans l'antiquité. La Grèce a été annexée par Rome au deuxième siècle avant notre ère, devenant ainsi partie intégrante de l'Empire romain et sa continuation, l' Empire byzantin , qui était sur le plan culturel et linguistique principalement grecque. L' Église orthodoxe grecque , qui a émergé au premier siècle de notre ère, a contribué à façonner l'identité grecque moderne et a transmis les traditions grecques au monde orthodoxe au sens large . Après être tombé sousDomination ottomane au milieu du XVe siècle, la Grèce est devenue un État-nation moderne en 1830 à la suite d'une guerre d'indépendance . Le riche héritage historique du pays se reflète en partie dans ses 18 sites classés au patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO .

La Grèce est une république parlementaire unitaire et un pays développé , avec une économie avancée à revenu élevé et une qualité de vie élevée , se classant simultanément très haut dans l' indice de développement humain . Son économie est la plus importante des Balkans, où elle est un important investisseur régional. Membre fondateur des Nations Unies , la Grèce a été le dixième membre à rejoindre les Communautés européennes (précurseur de l' Union européenne ) et fait partie de la zone euro depuis 2001. Elle est également membre de nombreuses autres institutions internationales, dont le Conseil des L'Europe , l' Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN), l' Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques (OCDE), l' Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC), l' Organisation pour la sécurité et la coopération en Europe (OSCE) et l' Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF). Le patrimoine culturel unique de la Grèce, sa grande industrie touristique , son secteur maritime de premier plan et son importance géostratégique la classent parmi les puissances moyennes . [c]

Nom

Le nom indigène du pays en grec moderne est Ελλάδα ( Elláda , prononcéAbout this sound[eˈlaða] ). La forme correspondante en grec ancien et en grec moderne formel conservateur ( Katharevousa ) est Ἑλλάς ( Hellas , classique :[hel.lás] , moderne :[eˈlas] ). C'est la source du nom alternatif anglais Hellas , qui se trouve principalement dans des contextes archaïques ou poétiques aujourd'hui. La forme adjectivale grecque ελληνικός ( ellinikos ,[eliniˈkos] ) est parfois aussi traduit par hellénique et est souvent rendu de cette manière dans les noms formels des institutions grecques, comme dans le nom officiel de l'État grec, la République hellénique ( Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ,[eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a] ). [20]

Les noms anglais Grèce et grec sont dérivés, via le latin Graecia et Graecus , du nom des Graeci ( Γραικοί , Graikoí ; singulier Γραικός , Graikós ), qui ont été parmi les premières tribus grecques antiques à s'installer dans la Magna Graecia dans le sud de l'Italie . Le terme est finalement dérivé du proto-indo-européenne racine * ǵerh₂- , « vieillir ».

Histoire

Préhistoire et histoire ancienne

L'entrée du Trésor d'Atrée (XIIIe av. J.-C.) à Mycènes
Hérodote ( vers  484 av . J.-C. - Vers  425 av . J.-C. ), souvent considéré comme le "père de l'histoire"

La première preuve de la présence d'ancêtres humains dans le sud des Balkans, datée de 270 000  av. J.-C., se trouve dans la grotte de Petralona , dans la province grecque de Macédoine. [21] La grotte d'Apidima à Mani , dans le sud de la Grèce, contient les restes les plus anciens d' humains anatomiquement modernes en dehors de l'Afrique, datés d'il y a 210 000 ans. [22] [23] [24] Les trois étapes de l'âge de pierre ( paléolithique , mésolithique et néolithique ) sont représentées en Grèce, par exemple dans la grotte de Franchthi . [25] Néolithiqueles colonies en Grèce, datant du 7ème millénaire avant JC, [21] sont les plus anciennes d'Europe de plusieurs siècles, car la Grèce se trouve sur la route par laquelle l'agriculture s'est propagée du Proche-Orient à l'Europe. [26] Après la fin de la période néolithique grecque en 3.200 avant notre ère, une période de transition lente entre l'économie de la pierre à l'économie de bronze au cours de la fin du 4e millénaire avant JC , y compris la culture Eutresis et la culture Korakou avec les premiers grands bâtiments ( Maison du Tuiles ) jusqu'au milieu du IIIe millénaire avant J.-C. a eu lieu en Grèce continentale. La culture de Tiryntheavant la période Helladique moyen qui a développé la base socio - économique de la suivante civilisation minoenne et la civilisation mycénienne . [27]

Fresque représentant le rituel minoen du "saut de taureau", trouvée à Knossos

La Grèce abrite les premières civilisations avancées d'Europe et est considérée comme le berceau de la civilisation occidentale, [d] [31] [32] [33] [34] en commençant par la civilisation cycladique sur les îles de la mer Égée vers 3200 av. , [35] la civilisation minoenne en Crète (2700–1500 av. J.-C.), [34] [36] puis la civilisation mycénienne sur le continent (1600–1100 av. J.-C.). [36] Ces civilisations possédaient l' écriture , les Minoens utilisant une écriture non déchiffrée connue sous le nom de Linéaire A, et les Mycéniens écrivant la première forme attestée du grec en linéaire B . Les Mycéniens ont progressivement absorbé les Minoens, mais se sont effondrés violemment vers 1200 avant JC, avec d'autres civilisations, lors de l'événement régional connu sous le nom d' effondrement de l'âge du bronze final . [37] Cela a inauguré une période connue sous le nom d'âge des ténèbres grec , à partir de laquelle les documents écrits sont absents. Bien que les textes de la Linéaire B mis au jour soient trop fragmentaires pour la reconstruction du paysage politique et ne puissent soutenir l'existence d'un État plus grand, les archives hittites et égyptiennes contemporaines suggèrent la présence d'un seul État sous un « Grand Roi » basé en Grèce continentale. . [38] [39]

Période archaïque et classique

Territoires et colonies grecs pendant la période archaïque (750-550 avant JC)

La fin de l'âge des ténèbres est traditionnellement datée de 776 avant JC, l'année des premiers Jeux Olympiques . [40] L' Iliade et l' Odyssée , les textes fondateurs de la littérature occidentale , auraient été composés par Homère aux VIIe ou VIIIe siècles av. [41] [42] Avec la fin de l'âge des ténèbres, divers royaumes et cités-états ont émergé à travers la péninsule grecque, qui se sont étendus aux rives de la mer Noire , de l'Italie du Sud ("Magna Graecia") et de l' Asie Mineure. Ces États et leurs colonies ont atteint de grands niveaux de prospérité qui ont entraîné un essor culturel sans précédent, celui de la Grèce classique , exprimé dans l' architecture , le théâtre , la science , les mathématiques et la philosophie . En 508 avant JC, Clisthène institua le premier système de gouvernement démocratique au monde à Athènes . [43] [44]

Le Parthénon sur l' Acropole d'Athènes , icône de la Grèce classique.

En 500 avant JC, l' Empire perse contrôlait les cités-États grecques d'Asie Mineure et de Macédoine. [45] Les tentatives faites par certains des cités grecques d'Asie Mineure à renverser la domination perse a échoué , et la Perse ont envahi les états de la Grèce continentale en 492 avant JC, mais a été forcé de se retirer après une défaite à la bataille de Marathon en 490 av. En réponse, les cités-États grecques ont formé la Ligue hellénique en 481 av. [46] [47] Une deuxième invasion par les Perses a suivi en 480 av. Après des victoires grecques décisives en 480 et 479 av.Salamine , Plataea et Mycale , les Perses ont été contraints de se retirer pour la deuxième fois, marquant leur retrait éventuel de tous leurs territoires européens. Menées par Athènes et Sparte, les victoires grecques dans les guerres gréco-persanes sont considérées comme un moment charnière dans l'histoire du monde, [48] car les 50 années de paix qui ont suivi sont connues sous le nom d'âge d'or d'Athènes , la période séminale de la Grèce antique. développement qui a jeté les bases de la civilisation occidentale.

Alexandre le Grand , dont les conquêtes ont conduit à l' âge hellénistique .

Le manque d'unité politique au sein de la Grèce a entraîné de fréquents conflits entre les États grecs. La guerre intra-grecque la plus dévastatrice a été la guerre du Péloponnèse (431-404 av. J.-C.), remportée par Sparte et marquant la disparition de l'empire athénien en tant que première puissance de la Grèce antique. Athènes et Sparte ont ensuite été éclipsées par Thèbes et finalement par la Macédoine, cette dernière réunissant la plupart des cités-États de l'arrière-pays grec dans la Ligue de Corinthe (également connue sous le nom de Ligue hellénique ou Ligue grecque ) sous le contrôle de Philippe II . [49] Despite this development, the Greek world remained largely fragmented and would not be united under a single power until the Roman years.[50] Sparta did not join the League and actively fought against it, raising an army led by Agis III to secure the city-states of Crete for Persia.[51]

Map of Alexander's short-lived empire (334–323 BC). After his death the lands were divided between the Diadochi

Following the assassination of Phillip II, his son Alexander III ("The Great") assumed the leadership of the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Persian Empire with the combined forces of the League in 334 BC. Undefeated in battle, Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire in its entirety by 330 BC. By the time of his death in 323 BC, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to India. Upon his death, his empire split into several kingdoms, the most famous of which were the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Séleucie , et les nombreuses autres nouvelles villes hellénistiques d'Asie et d'Afrique. [52] Bien que l'unité politique de l'empire d'Alexandre n'ait pas pu être maintenue, cela a abouti à la civilisation hellénistique et à la diffusion de la langue et de la culture grecques dans les territoires conquis par Alexandre. [53] La science, la technologie et les mathématiques grecques sont généralement considérées comme ayant atteint leur apogée pendant la période hellénistique. [54]

Périodes hellénistique et romaine (323 avant JC - 4ème siècle après JC)

Le mécanisme d'Anticythère (vers 100 av. J.-C.) est considéré comme le premier ordinateur analogique mécanique connu ( Musée national d'archéologie, Athènes ).
Une vue depuis les anciennes tombes royales macédoniennes à Vergina

Après une période de confusion après la mort d'Alexandre, la dynastie des Antigonides , descendante de l'un des généraux d'Alexandre, établit son contrôle sur la Macédoine et la plupart des cités-États grecques en 276 av. [55] À partir d'environ 200 avant JC, la République romaine est devenue de plus en plus impliquée dans les affaires grecques et s'est engagée dans une série de guerres avec la Macédoine . [56] La défaite de Macédoine à la bataille de Pydna en 168 av. J.-C. a marqué la fin du pouvoir antigonide en Grèce. [57] En 146 av. J.-C., la Macédoine a été annexée en tant que province par Rome et le reste de la Grèce est devenu un protectorat romain. [56] [58]

Le processus s'est achevé en 27 av. J.-C. lorsque l'empereur romain Auguste a annexé le reste de la Grèce et l'a constituée en province sénatoriale d' Achaïe . [58] Malgré leur supériorité militaire, les Romains admiraient et devinrent fortement influencés par les réalisations de la culture grecque, d'où la célèbre déclaration d' Horace : Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit (« La Grèce, bien que capturée, fit captif son conquérant sauvage »). [59] Les épopées d' Homère ont inspiré l' Énéide de Virgile , et des auteurs tels que Sénèque le jeune wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks. Before becoming emperor, he served as an eponymous archon of Athens.

The Odeon of Herodes Atticus in Athens, built in 161 AD

Les communautés de langue grecque de l'Orient hellénisé ont joué un rôle déterminant dans la propagation du christianisme primitif aux IIe et IIIe siècles [60] et les premiers dirigeants et écrivains du christianisme (notamment saint Paul ) étaient pour la plupart de langue grecque, bien que généralement pas de Grèce elle-même. . [61] Le Nouveau Testament a été écrit en grec, et certaines de ses sections ( Corinthiens , Thessaloniciens , Philippiens , Apocalypse de Saint-Jean de Patmos ) attestent de l'importance des églises en Grèce au début du christianisme.. Néanmoins, une grande partie de la Grèce s'accrochait avec ténacité au paganisme, et les pratiques religieuses grecques anciennes étaient encore en vogue à la fin du IVe siècle après JC, [62] lorsqu'elles furent interdites par l'empereur romain Théodose Ier en 391-392. [63] Les derniers jeux olympiques enregistrés ont eu lieu en 393, [64] et de nombreux temples ont été détruits ou endommagés au cours du siècle qui a suivi. [65] À Athènes et dans les zones rurales, le paganisme est attesté jusqu'au VIe siècle après JC [65] et même plus tard. [66] La fermeture du NéoplatonicienL'Académie d'Athènes par l'empereur Justinien en 529 est considérée par beaucoup comme marquant la fin de l'Antiquité, bien qu'il existe des preuves que l'Académie a continué ses activités pendant un certain temps après cela. [65] Certaines régions éloignées telles que le sud-est du Péloponnèse sont restées païennes jusqu'au 10ème siècle après JC. [67]

Période médiévale (IVe – XVe siècle)

Le Palais du Grand Maître des Chevaliers de Rhodes , construit à l'origine à la fin du 7ème siècle comme une citadelle byzantine et à partir de 1309 utilisé par les Chevaliers Hospitaliers comme centre administratif

L'empire romain à l'est, suite à la chute de l'empire à l'ouest au 5ème siècle, est conventionnellement connu sous le nom d'empire byzantin (mais était simplement appelé "Royaume des Romains" en son temps) et a duré jusqu'en 1453. Avec sa capitale à Constantinople , sa langue et sa culture étaient grecques et sa religion était majoritairement chrétienne orthodoxe orientale . [68]

From the 4th century, the Empire's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of barbarian invasions.[citation needed] The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in a dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.[69] Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on their own and continued to recognise imperial authority.[69] Outside of these areas, a limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on a much smaller scale than previously thought.[70][71] However, the view that Greece in late antiquity underwent a crisis of decline, fragmentation and depopulation is now considered outdated, as Greek cities show a high degree of institutional continuity and prosperity between the 4th and 6th centuries AD (and possibly later as well). In the early 6th century, Greece had approximately 80 cities according to the Synecdemus chronicle, and the period from the 4th to the 7th century AD is considered one of high prosperity not just in Greece but in the entire Eastern Mediterranean.[72]

The Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire after the death of Basil II in 1025

Until the 8th century almost all of modern Greece was under the jurisdiction of the Holy See of Rome according to the system of Pentarchy. Byzantine Emperor Leo III moved the border of the Patriarchate of Constantinople westward and northward in the 8th century.[73]

The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century.[74][75] This process was facilitated by a large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and the few that remained were assimilated.[70] During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth – much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire.[74] During that time, the Greek Orthodox Church was also instrumental in the spread of Greek ideas to the wider Orthodox world.[76][full citation needed]

À la suite de la quatrième croisade et de la chute de Constantinople aux mains des « Latins » en 1204, la Grèce continentale a été divisée entre le despotat grec d'Épire (un État successeur byzantin) et la domination française [77] (connue sous le nom de Frankokratia ), tandis que certaines îles sont venues sous la domination vénitienne . [78] Le rétablissement de la capitale impériale byzantine à Constantinople en 1261 s'accompagna de la récupération par l'empire d'une grande partie de la péninsule grecque, bien que la principauté franque d'Achaïe dans le Péloponnèse et le despotat grec rival d'Épire in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century, while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control.[77] During the Paleologi dynasty (1261–1453) a new era of Greek patriotism emerged accompanied by a turning back to ancient Greece.[79][80][81]

As such prominent personalities at the time also proposed changing the imperial title to "Emperor of the Hellenes",[79][81] and, in late fourteenth century, the emperor was frequently referred to as the "Emperor of the Hellenes".[82] Similarly, in several international treaties of that time the Byzantine emperor is styled as "Imperator Graecorum".[83]

In the 14th century, much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and then to the Ottomans.[84] By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its then-largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea).[84] After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was one of the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece.[85]Avec la conquête turque, de nombreux érudits grecs byzantins, qui jusque-là étaient en grande partie responsables de la préservation du savoir grec classique , se sont enfuis en Occident, emportant avec eux un vaste corpus de littérature et contribuant ainsi de manière significative à la Renaissance . [86]

Possessions vénitiennes et domination ottomane (15e siècle – 1821)

Le château byzantin d' Angelokastro a repoussé avec succès les Ottomans lors du premier grand siège de Corfou en 1537 , du siège de 1571 et du deuxième grand siège de Corfou en 1716 , les obligeant à abandonner leurs plans de conquête de Corfou . [87]

Alors que la majeure partie de la Grèce continentale et les îles de la mer Égée étaient sous contrôle ottoman à la fin du XVe siècle, Chypre et la Crète sont restées territoire vénitien et ne sont tombées aux mains des Ottomans qu'en 1571 et 1670 respectivement. La seule partie du monde de langue grecque qui a échappé à la domination ottomane à long terme était les îles Ioniennes , qui sont restées vénitiennes jusqu'à leur capture par la Première République française en 1797, puis passèrent au Royaume-Uni en 1809 jusqu'à leur unification avec la Grèce en 1864. . [88]

Alors que certains Grecs des îles Ioniennes et de Constantinople vivaient dans la prospérité et que les Grecs de Constantinople ( Phanariotes ) occupaient des postes de pouvoir au sein de l'administration ottomane, [89] une grande partie de la population de la Grèce continentale a subi les conséquences économiques de la conquête ottomane. De lourdes taxes ont été imposées et, au cours des années suivantes, l'Empire ottoman a adopté une politique de création de domaines héréditaires, transformant efficacement les populations rurales grecques en serfs . [90]

L' Église orthodoxe grecque et le Patriarcat œcuménique de Constantinople étaient considérés par les gouvernements ottomans comme les autorités dirigeantes de l'ensemble de la population chrétienne orthodoxe de l'Empire ottoman, qu'elle soit ethniquement grecque ou non. Bien que l'État ottoman n'oblige pas les non-musulmans à se convertir à l' islam , les chrétiens sont confrontés à plusieurs types de discrimination visant à souligner leur statut inférieur dans l'Empire ottoman. La discrimination contre les chrétiens, en particulier lorsqu'elle est associée à un traitement sévère de la part des autorités ottomanes locales, a conduit à des conversions à l'islam, ne serait-ce que superficiellement. Au 19ème siècle, de nombreux "crypto-chrétiens" sont revenus à leur ancienne allégeance religieuse. [91]

La Tour Blanche de Thessalonique , l'une des structures ottomanes les plus connues restant en Grèce.

La nature de l'administration ottomane de la Grèce variait, même si elle était invariablement arbitraire et souvent dure. [91] Certaines villes avaient des gouverneurs nommés par le sultan , tandis que d'autres (comme Athènes) étaient des municipalités autonomes. Les régions montagneuses de l'intérieur et de nombreuses îles sont restées effectivement autonomes de l'État ottoman central pendant de nombreux siècles. [92] [ page nécessaire ]

Lorsque des conflits militaires ont éclaté entre l'Empire ottoman et d'autres États, les Grecs ont généralement pris les armes contre les Ottomans, à quelques exceptions près. [ citation nécessaire ] Avant la Révolution grecque de 1821, il y avait eu un certain nombre de guerres qui ont vu les Grecs se battre contre les Ottomans, comme la participation grecque à la bataille de Lépante en 1571, les révoltes des paysans d'Épire de 1600-1601 ( dirigé par l'évêque orthodoxe Dionysios Skylosophos ), la guerre de Morée de 1684-1699 et la révolte d'Orlov déclenchée par les Russes en 1770, qui visait à briser l'Empire ottoman en faveur des intérêts russes. [92] [ page nécessaire] Ces soulèvements ont été réprimés par les Ottomans avec une grande effusion de sang. [93] [94] De l'autre côté, de nombreux Grecs ont été enrôlés en tant que citoyens ottomans pour servir dans l'armée ottomane (et en particulier dans la marine ottomane), tandis que le Patriarcat œcuménique de Constantinople , responsable des orthodoxes, est resté en général fidèle à L'empire.

The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of a "dark age" in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination. Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans. However, in the 18th century, due to their mastery of shipping and commerce, a wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class arose. These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformationet les Lumières , ces idées ainsi que les idéaux de la Révolution française et du nationalisme romantique ont commencé à pénétrer le monde grec via la diaspora marchande. [95] À la fin du XVIIIe siècle, Rigas Feraios , le premier révolutionnaire à envisager un État grec indépendant, a publié une série de documents relatifs à l'indépendance de la Grèce, y compris, mais sans s'y limiter, un hymne national et la première carte détaillée de la Grèce, à Vienne. . Feraios a été assassiné par des agents ottomans en 1798. [96] [97]

Période moderne

Guerre d'indépendance grecque (1821-1832)

The sortie (exodus) of Messolonghi, depicting the Third Siege of Missolonghi, painted by Theodoros Vryzakis.
The Battle of Navarino in 1827 secured Greek independence.

À la fin du XVIIIe siècle, une augmentation de l'apprentissage séculier au cours des Lumières grecques modernes a conduit à la renaissance chez les Grecs de la diaspora de la notion d'une nation grecque retraçant son existence à la Grèce antique , distincte des autres peuples orthodoxes, et ayant un droit à l'autonomie politique. L'une des organisations formées dans ce milieu intellectuel était la Filiki Eteria , une organisation secrète formée par des marchands à Odessa en 1814. [98] S'appropriant une longue tradition de prophétie messianique orthodoxe aspirant à la résurrection de l' empire romain oriental et créant le l'impression qu'ils avaient le soutien deRussie tsariste , ils parvinrent au milieu d'une crise du commerce ottoman, à partir de 1815, à engager les couches traditionnelles du monde orthodoxe grec dans leur cause nationaliste libérale. [99] Les Filiki Eteria prévoyaient de lancer la révolution dans le Péloponnèse , les Principautés danubiennes et Constantinople . La première de ces révoltes débute le 6 mars 1821 dans les Principautés danubiennes sous la direction d' Alexandros Ypsilantis , mais elle est bientôt réprimée par les Ottomans. Les événements du nord incitent les Grecs du Péloponnèse à agir et, le 17 mars 1821, les Maniots déclarent la guerre aux Ottomans. [100]

By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa. The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which would soon be suppressed. Meanwhile, the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea. In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the population.[100]Environ les trois quarts de la population grecque de Chios de 120 000 ont été tués, réduits en esclavage ou sont morts de maladie. [101] [102] Cela a eu pour effet de galvaniser l'opinion publique en Europe occidentale en faveur des rebelles grecs. [103]

Des tensions se sont rapidement développées entre les différentes factions grecques, conduisant à deux guerres civiles consécutives. Pendant ce temps, le sultan ottoman a négocié avec Mehmet Ali d'Égypte , qui a accepté d'envoyer son fils Ibrahim Pacha en Grèce avec une armée pour réprimer la révolte en échange d'un gain territorial. [104] Ibrahim débarque dans le Péloponnèse en février 1825 et connaît un succès immédiat : fin 1825, la majeure partie du Péloponnèse est sous contrôle égyptien, et la ville de Missolonghi — assiégée par les Turcs depuis avril 1825 — tombe en avril 1826. Bien qu'Ibrahim ait été vaincu à Mani , il avait réussi à réprimer la majeure partie de la révolte dans le Péloponnèse, et Athènes avait été reprise.

After years of negotiation, three great powers, France, Russian Empire, and the United Kingdom, decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent a navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at Navarino. A week-long standoff ended with the Battle of Navarino (20 October 1827) which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet. A French expeditionary forcea été envoyé pour superviser l'évacuation de l'armée égyptienne du Péloponnèse, tandis que les Grecs se sont rendus dans la partie capturée de la Grèce centrale en 1828. À la suite d'années de négociations, l' État grec naissant a finalement été reconnu en vertu du protocole de Londres en 1830.

Royaume de Grèce

The Entry of King Otto in Athens, painted by Peter von Hess in 1839.

In 1827, Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen by the Third National Assembly at Troezen as the first governor of the First Hellenic Republic. Kapodistrias established a series of state, economic and military institutions. Soon tensions appeared between him and local interests. Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent London conference a year later, the Great Powers of Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch.[105] Otto's reign was despotic, et au cours de ses 11 premières années d'indépendance, la Grèce était dirigée par une oligarchie bavaroise dirigée par Joseph Ludwig von Armansperg en tant que Premier ministre et, plus tard, par Otto lui-même, qui détenait à la fois le titre de roi et de premier ministre. [105] Pendant toute cette période, la Grèce est restée sous l'influence de ses trois grandes puissances protectrices , la France , la Russie et le Royaume-Uni , ainsi que la Bavière . [106] En 1843, un soulèvement a forcé Otto à accorder une constitution et une assemblée représentative.

Despite the absolutism of Otto's reign, the early years proved instrumental in creating institutions which are still the bedrock of Greek administration and education.[107] Important steps were taken in the creation of the education system, maritime and postal communications, effective civil administration and, most importantly, the legal code.[108] Historical revisionism took the form of de-Byzantinification and de-Ottomanisation, in favour of promoting the country's Ancient Greek heritage.[109] In this spirit, the national capital was moved from Nafplio, where it had been since 1829, to Athens, which was at the time a village.[110] Religious reform also took place, and the Church of Greece was established as Greece's national church, although Otto remained a Catholic. 25 March, the day of Annunciation, was chosen as the anniversary of the Greek War of Independence in order to reinforce the link between Greek identity and Orthodoxy.[109] Pavlos Karolidis called the Bavarian efforts to create a modern state in Greece as "not only appropriate for the peoples' needs, but also based on excellent administrative principles of the era".[108]

Otto a été déposé dans la Révolution du 23 octobre 1862 . De multiples causes ont conduit à sa déposition et à son exil, notamment le gouvernement dominé par la Bavière, une lourde fiscalité et une tentative infructueuse d'annexer la Crète à l' Empire ottoman . [105] Le catalyseur de la révolte était le renvoi d'Otto de Konstantinos Kanaris de la Premiership. [107] Un an plus tard, il a été remplacé par le prince Wilhelm (Guillaume) du Danemark, qui a pris le nom de George I et a apporté avec lui les îles Ioniennes comme cadeau de couronnement de la Grande-Bretagne. Une nouvelle Constitution en 1864 a changé la forme de gouvernement de la Grèce de la monarchie constitutionnelleà la république sacrée plus démocratique . [111] [112] [113] En 1875, le concept de majorité parlementaire comme condition requise pour la formation d'un gouvernement a été introduit par Charilaos Trikoupis , [114] limitant le pouvoir de la monarchie de nommer des gouvernements minoritaires de sa préférence.

L'évolution territoriale du Royaume de Grèce de 1832 à 1947.

La corruption, associée à l'augmentation des dépenses de Trikoupis pour financer des projets d'infrastructure comme le canal de Corinthe , a surtaxé la faiblesse de l'économie grecque et a forcé la déclaration d' insolvabilité publique en 1893. La Grèce a également accepté l'imposition d'une autorité de contrôle financier international pour rembourser les débiteurs du pays. Un autre problème politique dans la Grèce du XIXe siècle était uniquement grec : la question de la langue. Le peuple grec parlait une forme de grec appelée démotique . De nombreux membres de l'élite instruite considéraient cela comme un dialecte paysan et étaient déterminés à restaurer les gloires du grec ancien .

Les documents gouvernementaux et les journaux ont donc été publiés en grec Katharevousa (purifié), une forme que peu de Grecs ordinaires pouvaient lire. Les libéraux étaient favorables à la reconnaissance du démotique comme langue nationale, mais les conservateurs et l'Église orthodoxe ont résisté à tous ces efforts, dans la mesure où, lorsque le Nouveau Testament a été traduit en démotique en 1901, des émeutes ont éclaté à Athènes et le gouvernement est tombé (l' Evangeliaka ). Cette question continuerait à tourmenter la politique grecque jusque dans les années 1970.

All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Hellenic lands under Ottoman rule. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor and too concerned about British intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete.

Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers, however, Greece lost only a little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece. With state coffers empty, fiscal policy came under International Financial Control.[citation needed] Alarmed by the abortive Ilinden uprising of the autonomist Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) in 1903, the Greek government, aiming to quell Komitadjis (IMRO bands) and detach the Slavophone peasants of the region from Bulgarian influence, sponsored a guerrilla campaign in Ottoman-ruled Macedonia, led by Greek officers and known as the Macedonian Struggle, which ended with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908.[115]

Expansion, disaster, and reconstruction

Hellenic Army formation in the World War I Victory Parade in Arc de Triomphe, Paris, July 1919.

Au milieu du mécontentement général face à l'inertie apparente et à l'impossibilité d'atteindre les aspirations nationales sous le gouvernement du réformiste prudent Theotokis , un groupe d'officiers militaires organisa un coup d'État en août 1909 et appela peu après à Athènes l' homme politique crétois Eleftherios Venizelos , qui présenta une vision de la régénération nationale. . Après avoir remporté deux élections et être devenu Premier ministre en 1910, [116] Venizelos a lancé de vastes réformes fiscales, sociales et constitutionnelles , a réorganisé l'armée, a fait de la Grèce un membre de la Ligue des Balkans et a dirigé le pays à travers leBalkan Wars. By 1913, Greece's territory and population had almost doubled, annexing Crete, Epirus, and Macedonia. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of First World War dominated the country's political scene and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of WW1, Greece had two governments: A royalist pro-German one in Athens and a Venizelist pro-Entente one in Thessaloniki. The two governments were united in 1917, when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Entente.

Map of Greater Greece after the Treaty of Sèvres, when the Megali Idea seemed close to fulfillment, featuring Eleftherios Venizelos as its supervising genius.

Au lendemain de la Première Guerre mondiale, la Grèce a tenté une nouvelle expansion en Asie Mineure , une région avec une grande population grecque indigène à l'époque, mais a été vaincue lors de la guerre gréco-turque de 1919-1922 , contribuant à une fuite massive de l' Asie Mineure. Grecs . [117] [118] Ces événements se chevauchent, les deux ayant lieu pendant le génocide grec (1914-1922), [119] [120] [121] [122] une période au cours de laquelle, selon diverses sources, [123] ottoman et Les autorités turques ont contribué à la mort de plusieurs centaines de milliers de Grecs d'Asie Mineure, ainsi qu'un nombre similaire d' Assyriens and a rather larger number of Armenians. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The exchange was part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne which ended the war.[124]

L'ère suivante a été marquée par l'instabilité, car plus de 1,5 million de réfugiés grecs sans propriété de Turquie ont dû être intégrés dans la société grecque. Grecs cappadociens , les Grecs pontiques et adeptes non-grecs de la religion orthodoxe grecque étaient tous soumis à l'échange ainsi. Certains des réfugiés ne parlaient pas la langue et venaient d'environnements inconnus des Grecs du continent, comme dans le cas des Cappadociens et des non-Grecs. Les réfugiés ont également fait une augmentation spectaculaire de la population d'après-guerre, car le nombre de réfugiés était plus d'un quart de la population précédente de la Grèce. [125]

Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via a referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was declared. In 1935, a royalist general-turned-politician Georgios Kondylis took power after a coup d'état and abolished the republic, holding a rigged referendum, after which King George II returned to Greece and was restored to the throne.

Dictatorship, World War II, and reconstruction

Un accord entre le Premier ministre Ioannis Metaxas et le chef de l'État George II a suivi en 1936, qui a installé Metaxas à la tête d'un régime dictatorial connu sous le nom de régime du 4 août , inaugurant une période de régime autoritaire qui allait durer, avec de courtes pauses, jusqu'en 1974. [126] Bien qu'étant une dictature, la Grèce est restée en bons termes avec la Grande-Bretagne et n'a pas été alliée à l' Axe .

L' occupation de la Grèce par l'Axe .
  italien   Allemand   bulgare
  Dodécanèse, possession italienne depuis 1912

Le 28 octobre 1940, l'Italie fasciste a demandé la reddition de la Grèce, mais l'administration grecque a refusé et, lors de la guerre gréco-italienne qui a suivi , la Grèce a repoussé les forces italiennes en Albanie, donnant aux Alliés leur première victoire sur les forces de l'Axe sur terre. La lutte et la victoire grecques contre les Italiens ont reçu des éloges exubérants à l'époque. [127] [128] Le plus important est la citation attribuée à Winston Churchill : "Par conséquent, nous ne dirons pas que les Grecs se battent comme des héros, mais nous dirons que les héros se battent comme des Grecs." [127] Général français Charles de Gaulle was among those who praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance. In an official notice released to coincide with the Greek national celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle expressed his admiration for the Greek resistance:

In the name of the captured yet still alive French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are fighting for their freedom. The 25 March 1941 finds Greece in the peak of their heroic struggle and in the top of their glory. Since the Battle of Salamis, Greece had not achieved the greatness and the glory which today holds.[128]

Le pays finira par tomber aux mains des forces allemandes envoyées d'urgence lors de la bataille de Grèce , malgré la féroce résistance grecque, en particulier lors de la bataille de la ligne Metaxas . Adolf Hitler lui-même a reconnu la bravoure et le courage de l' armée grecque , déclarant dans son discours au Reichstag le 11 décembre 1941, que : « La justice historique m'oblige à déclarer celle des ennemis qui ont pris position contre nous, le soldat grec en particulier a combattu avec le plus grand courage. Il n'a capitulé que lorsque toute résistance supplémentaire était devenue impossible et inutile. [129]

People in Athens celebrate the liberation from the Axis powers, October 1944. Postwar Greece would soon experience a civil war and political polarization.

Les nazis ont procédé à l'administration d'Athènes et de Thessalonique, tandis que d'autres régions du pays ont été confiées aux partenaires de l'Allemagne nazie, l'Italie fasciste et la Bulgarie. L'occupation a causé de terribles souffrances à la population civile grecque. Plus de 100 000 civils sont morts de faim au cours de l'hiver 1941-1942, des dizaines de milliers d'autres sont morts à cause des représailles des nazis et de leurs collaborateurs , l'économie du pays a été ruinée et la grande majorité des Juifs grecs (des dizaines de milliers) ont été déportés et assassinés en camps de concentration nazis. [130] [131] La Résistance grecque , l'un des mouvements de résistance les plus efficaces d'Europe, a combattu avec véhémence les nazis et leurs collaborateurs. Les occupants allemands se sont engagésnumerous atrocities, mass executions, and wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in reprisals. In the course of the concerted anti-guerrilla campaign, hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1 million Greeks left homeless.[131] In total, the Germans executed some 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000, and the Italians 9,000.[132][clarification needed]

Following liberation and the Allied victory over the Axis, Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy and regained Western Thrace from Bulgaria. The country almost immediately descended into a bloody civil war between communist forces and the anti-communist Greek government, which lasted until 1949 with the latter's victory. The conflict, considered one of the earliest struggles of the Cold War,[133] resulted in further economic devastation, mass population displacement and severe political polarisation for the next thirty years.[134]

Bien que les décennies d'après-guerre aient été caractérisées par des conflits sociaux et une marginalisation généralisée de la gauche dans les sphères politiques et sociales, la Grèce a néanmoins connu une croissance et une reprise économiques rapides , propulsées en partie par le plan Marshall administré par les États-Unis . [135] En 1952, la Grèce rejoint l' OTAN , renforçant ainsi son appartenance au bloc occidental de la guerre froide.

Régime militaire (1967-1974)

Le limogeage par le roi Constantin II du gouvernement centriste de George Papandréou en juillet 1965 a provoqué une période prolongée de troubles politiques, qui a culminé avec un coup d'État le 21 avril 1967 par le régime des colonels . Sous la junte, les droits civils ont été suspendus, la répression politique a été intensifiée et les violations des droits de l'homme, y compris la torture sanctionnée par l'État, étaient monnaie courante. La croissance économique est restée rapide avant de plafonner en 1972. La répression brutale du soulèvement de l'École polytechnique d'Athènes le 17 novembre 1973 a déclenché les événements qui ont provoqué la chute du régime de Papadopoulos, entraînant un contre-coup qui a renversé Georgios Papadopoulos et établi le brigadierDimitrios Ioannidis as the new junta strongman. On 20 July 1974, Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus in response to a Greek-backed Cypriot coup, triggering a political crisis in Greece that led to the regime's collapse and the restoration of democracy through Metapolitefsi.

Third Hellenic Republic

Signature à Zappeion par Constantine Karamanlis des documents d'adhésion de la Grèce aux Communautés européennes en 1979.

L'ancien Premier ministre Konstantinos Karamanlis a été invité à revenir de Paris où il vivait en exil depuis 1963, marquant le début de l' ère Metapolitefsi . Les premières élections multipartites depuis 1964 ont eu lieu le premier anniversaire du soulèvement polytechnique. Un républicain démocratique et constitution a été promulguée le 11 Juin 1975 à la suite d' un référendum qui a choisi de ne pas rétablir la monarchie.

Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou, George Papandreou's son, founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations dominating in government over the next four decades. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.[e][136] Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in a period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, and a fast-growing service sector raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto against Turkey's bid for EU membership.

Recent history

Le pays a adopté l' euro en 2001 et a accueilli avec succès les Jeux olympiques d'été de 2004 à Athènes. [137] Plus récemment, la Grèce a beaucoup souffert de la récession de la fin des années 2000 et a été au cœur de la crise de la dette souveraine européenne connexe . En raison de l'adoption de l'euro, lorsque la Grèce a connu une crise financière, elle n'a plus pu dévaluer sa monnaie pour regagner de la compétitivité. Le chômage des jeunes était particulièrement élevé au cours des années 2000. [138] La crise de la dette du gouvernement grec et les politiques d' austérité qui ont suivi ont entraîné des protestations et des conflits sociaux. Aile gaucheSyriza , dirigé par le Premier ministre Alexis Tsipras , a gouverné la Grèce depuis 2015 jusqu'en 2019. Syriza a obtenu des soutiens en s'opposant à la politique d'austérité qui avait affecté les Grecs depuis le début de la crise de la dette du gouvernement grec . Cependant, le Premier ministre Tsipras a été remplacé par Kyriakos Mitsotakis après la victoire écrasante du centre droit Nouvelle Démocratie aux élections de 2019. [139]

En mars 2020, le parlement grec a élu une candidate non partisane, Ekaterini Sakellaropoulou , comme première femme présidente de la Grèce . [140]

climat et géographie

Située dans le sud [141] et le sud - est de l'Europe , [142] la Grèce se compose d'un continent montagneux et péninsulaire s'avançant dans la mer à l'extrémité sud des Balkans , se terminant à la péninsule du Péloponnèse (séparée du continent par le canal de l' isthme de Corinthe ) et stratégiquement situé au carrefour de l' Europe , de l' Asie et de l' Afrique . [f] En raison de son littoral très découpé et de ses nombreuses îles, la Grèce a le onzième littoral le plus long du monde avec 13 676 km (8 498 mi) ; [148] its land boundary is 1,160 km (721 mi). The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E, with the extreme points being:[149]

Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,918 metres (9,573 ft),[150] the highest in the country. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, a continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches a maximum elevation of 2,637 m (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) and historically has been a significant barrier to east–west travel.

La chaîne du Pinde continue à travers le centre du Péloponnèse, traverse les îles de Cythère et d'Anticythère et trouve son chemin dans le sud-ouest de la mer Égée, dans l'île de Crète où elle se termine finalement. Les îles de la mer Égée sont des sommets de montagnes sous-marines qui constituaient autrefois une extension du continent. Le Pinde se caractérise par ses hauts sommets escarpés, souvent disséqués par de nombreux canyons et une variété d'autres paysages karstiques. La spectaculaire gorge de Vikos , qui fait partie du parc national de Vikos-Aoos dans la chaîne du Pinde, est répertoriée par le livre Guinness des records du monde comme la gorge la plus profonde du monde. [151] Une autre formation notable sont les Météores piliers rocheux, au sommet desquels ont été construits des monastères grecs orthodoxes médiévaux.

Le nord-est de la Grèce comprend une autre chaîne de montagnes de haute altitude, la chaîne des Rhodopes , qui s'étend à travers la région de la Macédoine orientale et de la Thrace ; cette zone est couverte de vastes, épaisses et anciennes forêts, dont la célèbre forêt de Dadia dans l' unité régionale d'Evros , à l'extrême nord-est du pays.

Les vastes plaines sont principalement situées dans les régions de Thessalie , de Macédoine centrale et de Thrace . Elles constituent des régions économiques clés car elles comptent parmi les rares terres arables du pays. Des espèces marines rares telles que les phoques pinnipèdes et la tortue caouanne vivent dans les mers entourant la Grèce continentale, tandis que ses forêts denses abritent l' ours brun en voie de disparition , le lynx d'Eurasie , le chevreuil et la chèvre sauvage.

îles

La Grèce continentale et plusieurs petites îles vues de Nydri , Lefkada

La Grèce compte un grand nombre d'îles - entre 1 200 et 6 000, selon la définition, [152] dont 227 sont habitées - et est considérée comme un pays transcontinental non contigu . La Crète est l'île la plus grande et la plus peuplée ; L'Eubée , séparée du continent par le détroit d'Euripus de 60 m de large , est la deuxième plus grande, suivie de Lesbos et Rhodes .

Les îles grecques sont traditionnellement regroupées dans les groupes suivants : les îles Argo-Saroniques dans le golfe Saronique près d'Athènes, les Cyclades, un ensemble vaste mais dense occupant la partie centrale de la mer Égée, les îles de l'Égée du Nord , un regroupement lâche au large de la côte ouest de la Turquie, le Dodécanèse, une autre collection lâche dans le sud-est entre la Crète et la Turquie, les Sporades , un petit groupe serré au large de la côte nord-est de l'Eubée, et les îles Ioniennes, situées à l'ouest du continent dans la mer Ionienne.

Climat

Le climat de la Grèce est principalement méditerranéenne , [153] avec des hivers doux et humides et étés chauds et secs. [154] Ce climat se produit dans toutes les localités côtières, y compris Athènes, les Cyclades, le Dodécanèse, la Crète, le Péloponnèse, les îles Ioniennes et certaines parties de la région de la Grèce continentale centrale. La chaîne de montagnes du Pinde affecte fortement le climat du pays, car les zones à l'ouest de la chaîne sont considérablement plus humides en moyenne (en raison d'une plus grande exposition aux systèmes du sud-ouest apportant de l'humidité) que les zones situées à l'est de la chaîne ( en raison d'un effet d' ombre de pluie ).

Les régions montagneuses du nord-ouest de la Grèce (parties de l' Épire , de la Grèce centrale , de la Thessalie , de la Macédoine occidentale ) ainsi que les régions montagneuses centrales du Péloponnèse - y compris des parties des unités régionales d' Achaïe , d' Arcadie et de Laconie  - présentent un climat alpin avec de fortes chutes de neige . Les régions intérieures du nord de la Grèce, en Macédoine centrale, en Macédoine orientale et en Thrace, bénéficient d'un climat tempéréavec des hivers froids et humides et des étés chauds et secs avec des orages fréquents. Des chutes de neige se produisent chaque année dans les montagnes et les régions du nord, et de brèves chutes de neige ne sont pas inconnues, même dans les régions méridionales de basse altitude, comme Athènes. [155]

Biodiversité

Le mont Olympe est la plus haute montagne de Grèce et la demeure mythique des dieux de l'Olympe

Phytogéographiquement , la Grèce appartient au royaume boréal et est partagée entre la province de la Méditerranée orientale de la région méditerranéenne et la province illyrienne de la région circumboréale . Selon le Fonds mondial pour la nature et l' Agence européenne pour l' environnement , le territoire de la Grèce peut être subdivisé en six écorégions : les forêts de feuillus illyriennes , Pinde Montagnes forêts mixtes , forêts mixtes des Balkans , Rhodopes forêts montagnardes mixtes , la mer Égée et la Turquie occidentale sclérophylles et forêts mixtes etCrete Mediterranean forests.[156] It had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.6/10, ranking it 70th globally out of 172 countries.[157]

Politics

The building of the Hellenic Parliament (Old Royal Palace) in central Athens.
Count Ioannis Kapodistrias, first governor, founder of the modern Greek State, and distinguished European diplomat

Greece is a unitary parliamentary republic.[158] The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967–1974. It has been revised three times since, in 1986, 2001, 2008 and 2019. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil libertieset les droits sociaux . [159] [160] Le suffrage des femmes a été garanti avec un amendement à la Constitution de 1952.

Le chef de l'État nominal est le Président de la République , qui est élu par le Parlement pour un mandat de cinq ans. [158] Selon la Constitution, le pouvoir exécutif est exercé par le Président et le Gouvernement . [158] Cependant, l' amendement constitutionnel de 1986 a réduit les devoirs et les pouvoirs du président dans une mesure significative, rendant la position en grande partie cérémonielle; l'essentiel du pouvoir politique est ainsi dévolu au Premier ministre, chef du gouvernement grec . [161] Le poste est comblé par l' actuel chef du parti politiquequi peut obtenir un vote de confiance du Parlement. Le Président de la République nomme formellement le Premier ministre et, sur sa recommandation, nomme et révoque les autres membres du Cabinet. [158]

Legislative powers are exercised by a 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.[158] Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic.[158] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with a national issue of exceptional importance.[158] The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass a motion of no confidence.[158] The voting age is 17.[162]

Selon un rapport de 2016 de l'OCDE, les Grecs affichent un niveau de participation civique modéré par rapport à la plupart des autres pays développés ; le taux de participation était de 64 pour cent lors des dernières élections, inférieur à la moyenne de 69 pour cent de l'OCDE. [163]

Partis politiques

Kyriakos Mitsotakis , Premier ministre depuis 2019

Depuis la restauration de la démocratie, le système de partis grec était dominé par la Nouvelle Démocratie libérale-conservatrice (ND) et le Mouvement socialiste panhellénique social-démocrate (PASOK). [g] Les autres partis représentés au Parlement hellénique comprennent la Coalition de la gauche radicale (SYRIZA), le Parti communiste grec (KKE), la Solution grecque et MeRA25 .

Le PASOK et la Nouvelle Démocratie ont largement alterné au pouvoir jusqu'au déclenchement de la crise de la dette publique en 2009. À partir de cette date, les deux grands partis, Nouvelle Démocratie et PASOK, ont connu une forte baisse de popularité. [164] [165] [166] [167] [168] En novembre 2011, les deux principaux partis ont rejoint le plus petit Rassemblement orthodoxe populaire dans une grande coalition , promettant leur soutien parlementaire à un gouvernement d'union nationale dirigé par l'ancienne Banque centrale européenne. vice-président Lucas Papademos . [169] Panos Kammenosa voté contre ce gouvernement et il s'est séparé de ND pour former les Grecs indépendants populistes de droite .

The coalition government led the country to the parliamentary elections of May 2012. The power of the traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New Democracy, declined from 43% to 13% and from 33% to 18%, respectively. The left-wing party of SYRIZA became the second major party, with an increase from 4% to 16%. No party could form a sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections of June 2012. The result of the second elections was the formation of a coalition government composed of New Democracy (29%), PASOK (12%) and Democratic Left (6%) parties.

SYRIZA a depuis dépassé le PASOK en tant que principal parti du centre-gauche. [170] Alexis Tsipras a mené SYRIZA à la victoire aux élections législatives du 25 janvier 2015, échappant à une majorité absolue au Parlement de seulement deux sièges. [171] Le lendemain matin, Tsipras est parvenu à un accord avec le parti des Grecs indépendants pour former une coalition et il a prêté serment en tant que Premier ministre de la Grèce. [172] Tsipras a convoqué des élections anticipées en août 2015, démissionnant de son poste, ce qui a conduit à une administration intérimaire d'un mois dirigée par la juge Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou , la première femme Premier ministre de Grèce. [173] Dans leSeptember 2015 general election, Alexis Tsipras led SYRIZA to another victory, winning 145 out of 300 seats[174] and re-forming the coalition with the Independent Greeks.[175] However, he was defeated in the July 2019 general election by Kyriakos Mitsotakis who leads New Democracy.[176] On 7 July 2019, Kyriakos Mitsotakis was sworn in as the new Prime Minister of Greece. He formed a centre-right government after the landslide victory of his New Democracy party.[177]

Foreign relations

Representation through:[178]
  embassy
  embassy in another country
  general consulate
  no representation
  Greece

Greece's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs, currently Nikos Dendias. Officially, the main aims of the Ministry are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations;[179] safeguard the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad;[179] promote Greek culture;[179] foster closer relations with the Greek diaspora;[179] and encourage international cooperation.[179]

À la suite de la résolution du différend sur le nom de la Macédoine avec l' accord de Prespa en 2018, le ministère identifie deux questions restantes d'une importance particulière pour l'État grec : les contestations turques des droits de souveraineté de la Grèce dans la mer Égée et l'espace aérien correspondant et le différend chypriote impliquant l' occupation turque de Chypre du Nord . [180]

Il existe un conflit de longue date entre la Turquie et la Grèce au sujet des ressources naturelles de la Méditerranée orientale. La Turquie ne reconnaît pas de plateau continental légal et de zone économique exclusive autour des îles grecques. [181]

De plus, en raison de sa proximité politique et géographique avec l' Europe , l' Asie , le Moyen-Orient et l' Afrique , la Grèce est un pays d'une importance géostratégique importante, dont elle a tiré parti pour développer une politique régionale visant à promouvoir la paix et la stabilité dans les Balkans , la Méditerranée , et le Moyen - Orient . [182] Cela a accordé au pays le statut de puissance moyenne dans les affaires mondiales. [183]

La Grèce est membre de nombreuses organisations internationales, dont le Conseil de l'Europe , l' Union européenne , l' Union pour la Méditerranée , l' Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord , l' Organisation internationale de la francophonie et les Nations Unies , dont elle est membre fondateur.

Droit et justice

The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.

The Hellenic Police (Greek: Ελληνική Αστυνομία) is the national police force of Greece. It is a very large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984 under Law 1481/1-10-1984 (Government Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of the Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή, Chorofylaki) and the Cities Police (Αστυνομία Πόλεων, Astynomia Poleon) forces.[184]

Military

La frégate de fabrication grecque Psara utilisée par la marine hellénique
Boeing AH-64A Apache utilisé par l'aviation de l'armée hellénique
Un F-16 Fighting Falcon , le principal avion de combat de l' Armée de l'Air hellénique , lors d'un meeting aérien
Un Leopard 2 A6 HEL de l' armée hellénique lors d'un défilé à Athènes

Les forces armées helléniques sont supervisées par l' état-major de la défense nationale hellénique (en grec : Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ), l'autorité civile étant dévolue au ministère de la Défense nationale . Il se compose de trois branches :

De plus, la Grèce maintient les garde-côtes helléniques pour l'application de la loi en mer, la recherche et le sauvetage et les opérations portuaires. Bien qu'il puisse soutenir la marine en temps de guerre, il réside sous l'autorité du ministère de la Marine .

Le personnel militaire grec totalise 364 050, dont 142 700 sont actifs et 221 350 sont des réservistes. La Grèce se classe au 28e rang mondial pour le nombre de citoyens servant dans les forces armées. Le service militaire obligatoire est de neuf mois pour l'armée et d'un an pour la marine et l'armée de l'air. [185] De plus, les hommes grecs âgés de 18 à 60 ans qui vivent dans des zones stratégiquement sensibles peuvent être tenus de servir à temps partiel dans la Garde nationale.

En tant que membre de l' OTAN , l'armée grecque participe à des exercices et à des déploiements sous les auspices de l'alliance, bien que sa participation aux missions de l'OTAN soit minime. [186] La Grèce dépense plus de 7 milliards de dollars américains par an pour son armée, soit 2,3 % du PIB, le 24e plus élevé au monde en termes absolus, le septième plus élevé par habitant et le deuxième plus élevé de l'OTAN après le États Unis. De plus, la Grèce est l'un des cinq pays de l'OTAN à atteindre ou à dépasser l'objectif de dépenses minimales de défense de 2 % du PIB.

divisions administratives

Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of 13 regions subdivided into a total of 325, from 2019 232 (Cleisthenes programme), municipalities. The 54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions. Seven decentralised administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on a regional basis. There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (Greek: Agio Oros, "Holy Mountain"), which borders the region of Central Macedonia.

Map No. Region Capital Area (km2) Area (sq. mi.) Population[187] GDP (bn)[188]
Peripheries of Greece numbered.svg
1 Attica Athens 3,808.10 1,470.32 3,828,434 €83.469
2 Central Greece Lamia 15,549.31 6,003.62 547,390 €7.926
3 Central Macedonia Thessaloniki 18,810.52 7,262.78 1,882,108 €23.850
4 Crete Heraklion 8,259 3,189 623,065 €8.654
5 East Macedonia and Thrace Komotini 14,157.76 5,466.34 608,182 €6.709
6 Epirus Ioannina 9,203.22 3,553.38 336,856 €3.843
7 Ionian Islands Corfu 2,306.94 890.71 207,855 €3.064
8 North Aegean Mytilene 3,835.91 1,481.05 199,231 €2.412
9 Peloponnese Tripoli 15,489.96 5,980.71 577,903 €7.683
10 South Aegean Ermoupoli 5,285.99 2,040.93 309,015 €5.888
11 Thessaly Larissa 14,036.64 5,419.58 732,762 €9.006
12 West Greece Patras 11,350.18 4,382.33 679,796 €7.847
13 West Macedonia Kozani 9,451 3,649 283,689 €3.849
No. Autonomous state Capital Area (km2) Area (sq. mi.) Population PIB ( milliards )
(14) Mont Athos Karyes 390 151 1 830 N / A

Économie

introduction

Une représentation proportionnelle des exportations de la Grèce, 2019

Selon les statistiques de la Banque mondiale pour l'année 2013, l'économie de la Grèce est la 43e en termes de produit intérieur brut nominal à 242 milliards de dollars [189] et la 53e en parité de pouvoir d'achat (PPA) à 284 milliards de dollars. [190] De plus, la Grèce est la 15e plus grande économie des 27 membres de l'Union européenne . [191] En termes de revenu par habitant , la Grèce est classée 41e ou 47e au monde à 18 168 $ et 29 045 $ pour le PIB nominal et la PPA respectivement. L'économie grecque est classée comme avancée [192][193][194][195][196] and high-income.[197][195]

Graphical depiction of Greece's product exports in percent for 2018.
Graphical depiction of Greece's product exports (%) in 2018

Greece is a developed country with a high standard of living and a high ranking in the Human Development Index.[198][199][200] Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0%) and industry (12.0%), while agriculture makes up 3.0% of the national economic output.[201] Important Greek industries include tourism (with 14.9 million[202] international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most visited country in the European Union[202] and 16th in the world[202] by the United Nations World Tourism Organization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2%[203] of the world's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world[203]), while the country is also a considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union.

Greek unemployment stood at 21.7% in April 2017.[204] The youth unemployment rate (42.3% in March 2018) is extremely high compared to EU standards.[205]

With an economy larger than all the other Balkan economies combined, Greece is the largest economy in the Balkans,[206][207][208] and an important regional investor.[206][207] Greece is the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania, the number-three foreign investor in Bulgaria, at the top-three of foreign investors in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of North Macedonia. Greek banks open a new branch somewhere in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis.[209][210][211] The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become a strong investor in Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.[209]

La Grèce était un membre fondateur de l' Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques (OCDE) et de l' Organisation de coopération économique de la mer Noire (BSEC). En 1979, l'adhésion du pays aux Communautés européennes et au marché unique a été signée, et le processus a été achevé en 1982. La Grèce a été acceptée dans l' Union économique et monétaire de l'Union européenne le 19 juin 2000, et en janvier 2001 a adopté le L'euro comme monnaie, remplaçant la drachme grecque à un taux de change de 340,75 drachmes pour l'euro. [212] La Grèce est également membre du Fonds monétaire international et de laWorld Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the KOF Globalization Index for 2013.

Debt crisis (2010–2018)

Greece's debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the Eurozone

The Greek economy had fared well for much of the 20th century, with high growth rates and low public debt.[213] Even until the eve of the Financial crisis of 2007–2008, it featured high rates of growth, which, however, were coupled with high structural deficits, thus maintaining a (roughly unchanged throughout this period) public debt to GDP ratio of just over 100%.[213] The Greek crisis was triggered by the turmoil of the 2007–2009 Great Recession, which led the budget deficits of several Western nations to reach or exceed 10% of GDP.[213]Dans le cas de la Grèce, le déficit budgétaire élevé (qui, après plusieurs corrections et révisions, a révélé qu'il avait été autorisé à atteindre 10,2 % et 15,1 % du PIB en 2008 et 2009, respectivement) était associé à un ratio dette publique/PIB élevé (relativement stable, à un peu plus de 100 % jusqu'en 2007 - tel que calculé après toutes les corrections). Ainsi, le pays semblait perdre le contrôle de son ratio dette publique/PIB, qui atteignait déjà 127 % du PIB en 2009. [214] De plus, étant membre de la zone euro, le pays ne disposait essentiellement d'aucune flexibilité de politique monétaire autonome . Enfin, il y a eu un effet de controverses sur les statistiques grecques (en raison des révisions drastiques du déficit budgétaire susmentionnées qui ont conduit à une augmentation de la valeur calculée de la dette publique grecque deenviron 10 % , c'est-à-dire une dette publique rapportée au PIB d'environ 100 % jusqu'en 2007), alors qu'il y a eu des arguments sur un effet possible des reportages des médias . Par conséquent, la Grèce a été « punie » par les marchés qui ont augmenté les taux d'emprunt, rendant impossible pour le pays de financer sa dette depuis début 2010.

The above revisions were largely connected with the fact that in the years before the crisis Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, and numerous other banks had developed financial products which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy, and many other European countries to hide their borrowing.[215][216][217][218][219][220][221][222][223] Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were "kept off the books".[223][224][225] [226] [227] [228] Ces conditions avaient permis à la Grèce ainsi qu'à d'autres gouvernements européens de dépenser au-delà de leurs moyens, tout en atteignant les objectifs de déficit fixés dans le traité de Maastricht . [228] [223] [229]

En mai 2010, le déficit de la Grèce a été à nouveau révisé et estimé à 13,6% [230], le deuxième plus élevé au monde par rapport au PIB, avec l' Islande en première place avec 15,7% et le Royaume-Uni en troisième avec 12,6%. [231] La dette publique devait, selon certaines estimations, atteindre 120 % du PIB la même année, [232] provoquant une crise de confiance dans la capacité de la Grèce à rembourser ses prêts.

Pour éviter un défaut souverain , la Grèce, les autres membres de la zone euro et le Fonds monétaire international ont convenu d'un plan de sauvetage qui consistait à accorder à la Grèce un prêt immédiat de 45 milliards d'euros , avec des fonds supplémentaires à suivre, pour un total de 110 milliards d'euros . [233] [234] Pour garantir le financement, la Grèce a été tenue d'adopter des mesures d'austérité sévères pour maîtriser son déficit. [235] Un deuxième plan de sauvetage d'un montant de 130 milliards d'euros ( 173 milliards de dollars ) a été convenu en 2012, sous réserve de conditions strictes, notamment des réformes financières et de nouvelles mesures d'austérité. [236]Une décote de la dette a également été convenue dans le cadre de l'accord. [236] La Grèce a dégagé un excédent budgétaire primaire en 2013, tandis qu'en avril 2014, elle est revenue sur le marché obligataire mondial . La Grèce a renoué avec la croissance après six années de déclin économique au deuxième trimestre de 2014 [237] et a été l'économie de la zone euro à la croissance la plus rapide au troisième trimestre. [238] Un troisième plan de sauvetage a été convenu en juillet 2015, après une confrontation avec le gouvernement nouvellement élu d' Alexis Tsipras .

Il y a eu une baisse de 25 % du PIB de la Grèce, liée aux programmes de sauvetage. [213] [239] Cela a eu un effet critique : le ratio dette/PIB, facteur clé définissant la gravité de la crise, passerait de son niveau de 2009 de 127 % à environ 170 %, uniquement en raison de la contraction de l'économie . [la citation nécessaire ] Dans un rapport de 2013, le FMI a admis qu'il avait sous-estimé les effets de si vastes hausses d'impôts et coupes budgétaires sur le PIB du pays et a publié des excuses informelles. [240] [241] [242] Les programmes grecs ont imposé une amélioration très rapide du solde primaire structurel (au moins deux fois plus rapide que pour les autres pays renfloués de la zone euro [243]). The policies have been blamed for worsening the crisis,[244][245] while Greece's president, Prokopis Pavlopoulos, stressed the creditors' share in responsibility for the depth of the crisis.[246][247] Greek Prime Minister, Alexis Tsipras, asserted that errors in the design of the first two programmes which led to a loss of 25% of the Greek economy due to the harsh imposition of excessive austerity.[239]

Entre 2009 et 2017, la dette publique grecque est passée de 300 Md€ à 318 Md€, soit de seulement 6 % environ (en partie grâce à la restructuration de la dette de 2012) ; [214] [248] cependant, au cours de la même période, le ratio critique dette/PIB est passé de 127 % à 179 % [214] essentiellement en raison de la forte baisse du PIB pendant la gestion de la crise . [213]

Les plans de sauvetage de la Grèce ont pris fin avec succès (comme déclaré) le 20 août 2018. [249]

Agriculture

Séchage au soleil de groseille de Zante à Zakynthos

En 2010, la Grèce était le premier producteur de coton de l' Union européenne (183 800 tonnes) et de pistaches (8 000 tonnes) [250] et se classait au deuxième rang pour la production de riz (229 500 tonnes) [250] et d' olives (147 500 tonnes), [ 251] troisième dans la production de figues (11 000 tonnes), [251] amandes (44 000 tonnes), [251] tomates (1 400 000 tonnes), [251] et pastèques (578 400 tonnes) [251] et quatrième dans la production de tabac (22 000 tonnes). [250] L'agriculture contribue à 3,8% du PIB du pays et emploie 12,4% de la population active du pays.

La Grèce est l'un des principaux bénéficiaires de la politique agricole commune de l'Union européenne. À la suite de l'entrée du pays dans la Communauté européenne, une grande partie de son infrastructure agricole a été modernisée et la production agricole a augmenté. Entre 2000 et 2007, l'agriculture biologique en Grèce a augmenté de 885%, le pourcentage de changement le plus élevé de l'UE.

Énergie

Potentiel de production d'énergie solaire en Grèce

La production d'électricité en Grèce est dominée par l'entreprise publique Public Power Corporation (connue principalement sous son acronyme ΔΕΗ, translittéré par DEI). En 2009, DEI a fourni 85,6 % de toute la demande d'énergie électrique en Grèce, [252] alors que ce nombre est tombé à 77,3 % en 2010. [252] Près de la moitié (48 %) de la production d'électricité de DEI est générée à l'aide de lignite , une baisse par rapport au 51,6 % en 2009. [252]

Douze pour cent de l'électricité de la Grèce provient de centrales hydroélectriques [253] et 20 % du gaz naturel . [253] Entre 2009 et 2010, la production d'énergie des entreprises indépendantes a augmenté de 56 %, [252] passant de 2 709 gigawattheures en 2009 à 4 232 GWh en 2010. [252]

En 2012, les énergies renouvelables représentaient 13,8% de la consommation totale d'énergie du pays, [254] une augmentation par rapport aux 10,6% qu'elle représentait en 2011 [254] un chiffre presque égal à la moyenne de l'UE de 14,1% en 2012. [254 ] 10% de l'énergie renouvelable du pays provient de l'énergie solaire , [255] tandis que la plupart provient de la biomasse et du recyclage des déchets. [255] Conformément à la directive de la Commission européenne sur les énergies renouvelables, la Grèce vise à obtenir 18 % de son énergie à partir de sources renouvelables d'ici 2020. [256]

In 2013, according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece (ΑΔΜΗΕ) more than 20% of the electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants. This percentage in April reached 42%. Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation; however, in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.[257]

Maritime industry

Les entreprises grecques contrôlent 16,2 % de la flotte marchande totale du monde [la citation nécessaire ] en fait la plus grande au monde. Ils sont classés dans le top 5 pour toutes sortes de navires, y compris au premier rang pour les pétroliers et les vraquiers.

L'industrie du transport maritime est un élément clé de l'activité économique grecque depuis l'Antiquité. [258] Le transport maritime reste l'une des industries les plus importantes du pays, représentant 4,5 % du PIB, employant environ 160 000 personnes (4 % de la main-d'œuvre) et représentant un tiers du déficit commercial. [259]

Selon un rapport de 2011 de la Conférence des Nations Unies sur le commerce et le développement , la marine marchande grecque est la plus grande au monde avec 16,2 % de la capacité mondiale totale, [203] contre 15,96 % en 2010 [260] mais en deçà du pic de 18,2 pour cent en 2006. [261] La flotte marchande du pays se classe première en tonnage total (202 millions de tpl ), [203] quatrième en nombre total de navires (à 3 150), première en pétroliers et vraquiers secs , quatrième en nombre de conteneurs , et cinquième dans d'autres navires. [262] However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.[258] Additionally, the total number of ships flying a Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5.3 percent of the world's dwt (ranked fifth globally).[260]

During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.[263] The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to them by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.[263]

La Grèce possède une importante industrie de la construction navale et de l'entretien des navires. Les six chantiers navals autour du port du Pirée sont parmi les plus grands d'Europe. [264] Ces dernières années, la Grèce est également devenue un leader dans la construction et l'entretien de yachts de luxe. [265]

Tourisme

Santorin , une destination touristique populaire, est classée comme la meilleure île du monde dans de nombreux magazines et sites de voyage. [266] [267]

Le tourisme a été un élément clé de l'activité économique du pays et l'un des secteurs les plus importants du pays, contribuant à 20,6% du produit intérieur brut en 2018. [268] La Grèce a accueilli plus de 28 millions de visiteurs en 2016, [269] qui est une augmentation par rapport aux 26,5 millions de touristes qu'elle a accueillis en 2015 et aux 19,5 millions en 2009 [270] et aux 17,7 millions de touristes en 2007, [271] faisant de la Grèce l'un des pays les plus visités d' Europe ces dernières années.

The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 million,[272] while the most visitors from a single nationality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 million), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 million).[272] In 2010, the most visited region of Greece was that of Central Macedonia, with 18% of the country's total tourist flow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), followed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with 1.8 million.[270] Northern Greece is the country's most-visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.[270]

En 2010, Lonely Planet a classé Thessalonique , la deuxième ville du nord de la Grèce et la deuxième ville la plus festive au monde, comparable à d'autres villes telles que Dubaï et Montréal . [273] En 2011, Santorin a été élue « La meilleure île du monde » dans Travel + Leisure . [274] Son île voisine Mykonos , est arrivée cinquième dans la catégorie européenne. [274] Il y a 18 sites du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO en Grèce, [275]et la Grèce est classée 16e au monde en termes de nombre total de sites. 14 autres sites sont sur la liste indicative, en attente de nomination. [275]

Vue panoramique sur la vieille ville de Corfou , site du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO , vue depuis la vieille forteresse . La baie de Garitsa est à gauche et le port de Corfou est juste visible en haut à droite. La place Spianada est au premier plan.

Transport

The Rio–Antirrio bridge connects mainland Greece to the Peloponnese.

Since the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernised. Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern Greece (Thessaloniki) and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); the Rio–Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe (2,250 m (7,382 ft) long), connecting the Peloponnese (Rio, 7 km (4 mi) from Patras) with Aetolia-Akarnania (Antirrio) in western Greece.

Also completed are the A5 (Ionia Odos) motorway that connects northwestern Greece (Ioannina) with western Greece (Antirrio); the last sections of the A1 motorway, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki and Evzonoi in northern Greece; as well as the A8 motorway (part of the Olympia Odos) in Peloponnese, connecting Athens to Patras. The remaining section of Olympia Odos, connecting Patras with Pyrgos, is under planning.

Other important projects that are currently underway, include the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro.

The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run A6 (Attiki Odos) motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system.

Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines. Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.

Railway connections play a somewhat lesser role in Greece than in many other European countries, but they too have also been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has also been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the 2,500 km (1,600 mi) network is underway; along with a new double track, standard gauge railway between Athens and Patras (replacing the old metre-gauge Piraeus–Patras railway) which is currently under construction and opening in stages.[276] International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.

Telecommunications

Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over 35,000 km (21,748 mi) of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: there were a total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011, translating to 20% broadband penetration.[277] According to 2017 data, around 82% of the general population used the internet regularly.[278]

Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also a common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.[279] 3G/4G mobile internet usage has been on a sharp increase in recent years. Based on 2016 data 70% of Greek internet users have access via 3G/4G mobile.[278] The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with a highly developed information and communications infrastructure.[280]

Science and technology

Georgios Papanikolaou, a pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection

The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development and Competitiveness is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2017, spending on research and development (R&D) reached an all-time high of €2 billion, equal to 1.14 percent of GDP.[281]

Although lower than the EU average of 1.93 percent, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third-highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Greece was ranked 43rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2020, down from 41st in 2019.[282][283][284][285] Because of its strategic location, qualified workforce, and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola, Coca-Cola, and Tesla have their regional R&D headquarters in Greece.[286]

Greece has several major technology parks with incubator facilities and has been a member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005.[287] Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in 1994 with the signing of the first cooperation agreement. After applying for full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESA's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. The country participates in the ESA's telecommunication and technology activities and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative.

The National Centre of Scientific Research "Demokritos" was founded in 1959. The original objective of the center was the advancement of nuclear research and technology. Today, its activities cover several fields of science and engineering.

Greece has one of the highest rates of tertiary enrollment in the world,[288] while Greeks are well represented in academia worldwide; numerous leading Western universities employ a disproportionately high number of Greek faculty.[289] Greek scientific publications have grown significantly in terms of research impact, surpassing both the EU and global average from 2012 to 2016.[290]

Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), mathematician Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory theorems and Carathéodory conjecture), astronomer E. M. Antoniadi, archaeologists Ioannis Svoronos, Valerios Stais, Spyridon Marinatos, Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Indologist Dimitrios Galanos, botanist Theodoros G. Orphanides, such as Michael Dertouzos, Nicholas Negroponte, John Argyris, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, a major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern theory of Elementary Particles), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize) and physicist Dimitri Nanopoulos.

Demographics

Hermoupolis, on the island of Syros, is the capital of the Cyclades.

According to the official statistical body of Greece, the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the country's total population in 2011 was 10,816,286.[7] Eurostat places the current population at 10.7 million in 2018.[291]

Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several decades, coinciding with the wider European trend of declining fertility and rapid aging. The birth rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981. At the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003. Estimates from 2016 show the birth rate decreasing further still to 8.5 per 1,000 and mortality climbing to 11.2 per 1,000.[292]

Population pyramid of Greece in 2017

The fertility rate of 1.41 children per woman is well below the replacement rate of 2.1, and is one of the lowest in the world, considerably below the high of 5.47 children born per woman in 1900.[293] Subsequently, Greece's median age is 44.2 years, the seventh-highest in the world.[294] In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old and younger.[295] By 2016, the proportion of the population age 65 and older had risen to 20.68 percent, while the proportion of those aged 14 and younger declined to slightly below 14 percent.

Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and then fall again to 51 in 2004.[295] Moreover, divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.[295]

As a result of these trends, the average Greek household is smaller and older than in previous generations. The economic crisis has exacerbated this development, with 350,000-450,000 Greeks, predominantly young adults, emigrating since 2010.[296]

Cities

Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are those of Athens and Thessaloniki—that latter commonly referred to as the symprotévousa (συμπρωτεύουσα, lit.'co-capital'[297])—with metropolitan populations of approximately 4 million and 1 million inhabitants respectively. Other prominent cities with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Agrinio, Chania, and Chalcis.[298]

The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in their respective contiguous built up urban areas, which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki, or are contained within a larger single municipality, case evident in most of the smaller cities of the country. The results come from the preliminary figures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.



Religion

Religiosity in Greece (2017)[3]

  Other Christians (exc.Catholics) (3%)
  Irreligion (4%)
  Islam (2%)
  Other religions (inc.Catholics) (1%)

The Greek Constitution recognises Eastern Orthodoxy as the 'prevailing' faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all.[158][300] The Greek government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify themselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church,[301] which uses the Byzantine rite and the Greek language, the original language of the New Testament. The administration of the Greek territory is shared between the Church of Greece and the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

In a 2010 EurostatEurobarometer poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that they "believe there is a God".[302] According to other sources, 15.8% of Greeks describe themselves as "very religious", which is the highest among all European countries. The survey also found that just 3.5% never attend a church, compared to 4.9% in Poland and 59.1% in the Czech Republic.[303]

Estimates of the recognised Greek Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range around 100,000,[301][304] (about 1% of the population). Some of the Albanian immigrants to Greece come from a nominally Muslim background, although most are secular in orientation.[305] Following the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to a population transfer based on cultural and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly those defined as Turks, but also Greek Muslims like the Vallahades of western Macedonia, were exchanged with approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Turkey. However, many refugees who settled in former Ottoman Muslim villages in Central Macedonia, and were defined as Christian Orthodox Caucasus Greeks, arrived from the former Russian Transcaucasus province of Kars Oblast, after it had been retroceded to Turkey prior to the official population exchange.[306]

Judaism has been present in Greece for more than 2,000 years. The ancient community of Greek Jews are called Romaniotes, while the Sephardi Jews were once a prominent community in the city of Thessaloniki, numbering some 80,000, or more than half of the population, by 1900.[307] However, after the German occupation of Greece and the Holocaust during World War II, is estimated to number around 5,500 people.[301][304]

The Roman Catholic community is estimated to be around 250,000[301][304] of which 50,000 are Greek citizens.[301] Their community is nominally separate from the smaller Greek Byzantine Catholic Church, which recognises the primacy of the Pope but maintains the liturgy of the Byzantine Rite.[308] Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers.[304] Protestants, including the Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000.[301][304] Other Christian minorities, such as Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and various Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church total about 12,000 members.[309] The independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.[310] There are no official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.[311] The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.[312]

Since 2017, Hellenic Polytheism, or Helenism has been legally recognised as an actively practiced religion in Greece,[313] with estimates of 2,000 active practitioners and an additional 100,000 "sympathisers".[314][315][316] Hellenism refers to various religious movements that continue, revive, or reconstruct ancient Greek religious practices.

Languages

Regions with a traditional presence of languages other than Greek. Today, Greek is the dominant language throughout the country.[317][318][319][320][321][322]

The first textual evidence of the Greek language dates back to 15th century BC and the Linear B script which is associated with the Mycenaean Civilization. Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and beyond during Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire.

During the 19th and 20th centuries there was a major dispute known as the Greek language question, on whether the official language of Greece should be the archaic Katharevousa, created in the 19th century and used as the state and scholarly language, or the Dimotiki, the form of the Greek language which evolved naturally from Byzantine Greek and was the language of the people. The dispute was finally resolved in 1976, when Dimotiki was made the only official variation of the Greek language, and Katharevousa fell to disuse.

Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with a large majority of the native population using Greek as their first or only language. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute a sizable group. The Cappadocian dialect came to Greece due to the genocide as well, but is endangered and is barely spoken now. Indigenous Greek dialects include the archaic Greek spoken by the Sarakatsani, traditionally transhument mountain shepherds of Greek Macedonia and other parts of Northern Greece. The Tsakonian language, a distinct Greek language deriving from Doric Greek instead of Koine Greek, is still spoken in some villages in the southeastern Peloponnese.

The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks)[322] and Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority.

Today they are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. This goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians, also known as "Vlachs", whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of these groups usually identify ethnically as Greek[323] and are today all at least bilingual in Greek.

Near the northern Greek borders there are also some Slavic–speaking groups, locally known as Slavomacedonian-speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks. It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers.[324] The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by a few thousand speakers. Other notable minority languages include Armenian, Georgian, and the Greco-Turkic dialect spoken by the Urums, a community of Caucasus Greeks from the Tsalka region of central Georgia and ethnic Greeks from southeastern Ukraine who arrived in mainly Northern Greece as economic migrants in the 1990s.

Migration

A map of the fifty countries with the largest Greek diaspora communities.

Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating a large Greek diaspora. Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was that of returning Greek migrants or of Pontic Greeks and others from Russia, Georgia, Turkey the Czech Republic, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Bloc.[325]

A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of the total population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the total.[326] Some of the immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania centred on the region of Northern Epirus. In addition, the total Albanian national population which includes temporary migrants and undocumented persons is around 600,000.[327]

The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (91,56%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4,44%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0,7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0,43%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0,32%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0,25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2,3%).[328] 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.[325]

The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and then Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is also a considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet Union.[325]

Greece, together with Italy and Spain, is a major entry point for illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River and the islands of the eastern Aegean across from Turkey (mainly Lesbos, Chios, Kos, and Samos). In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.[329] In 2015, arrivals of refugees by sea had increased dramatically mainly due to the ongoing Syrian civil war. There were 856,723 arrivals by sea in Greece, an almost fivefold increase to the same period of 2014, of which the Syrians represent almost 45%.[330] The majority of refugees and migrants use Greece as a transit country, while their intended destinations are northern European Nations such as Austria, Germany and Sweden.[331][332]

Education

The Academy of Athens is Greece's national academy and the highest research establishment in the country.
The Ionian Academy in Corfu, the first academic institution of modern Greece.

Greeks have a long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education), which was upheld as one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world. The first European institution described as a university was founded in fifth-century Constantinople and continued operating in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[333] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning,[334] and by some measures was the world's first university.[333]

Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above four years of age. Children start primary school aged six and remain there for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years.

Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and technicalvocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide a formal but unclassified level of education. As they can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, these institutes are not classified as offering a particular level of education.

According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") consists of two parallel sectors:the university sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty-two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through a form of lottery. The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean.

The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary, and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. There are also specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, theological, and physical education.

Seventy-two percent of Greek adults aged 25–64 have completed upper secondary education, which is slightly less than the OECD average of 74 percent. The average Greek pupil scored 458 in reading literacy, maths and science in the OECD's 2015 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). This score is lower than the OECD average of 486. On average, girls outperformed boys by 15 points, much more than the average OECD gap of two points.[335]

Healthcare system

Greece has universal health care. The system is mixed, combining a national health service with social health insurance (SHI). 2000 World Health Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.[336] In a 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th out of 176 countries for the state of mothers and newborn babies.[337] In 2010, there were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds, but in 2011, the Ministry of Health announced plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards.[338] However, as of 2014, there were 124 public hospitals, of which 106 were general hospitals and 18 specialised hospitals, with a total capacity of about 30,000 beds.[339]

Greece's healthcare expenditures as a percentage of GDP were 9.6% in 2007, just above the OECD average of 9.5%.[340] By 2015, spending declined to 8.4% of GDP (compared with the EU average of 9.5%), a decline of one-fifth since 2010. Nevertheless, the country maintains the highest doctor-to-population ratio of any OECD country[340] and the highest doctor-to-patient ratio in the EU.[341]

Life expectancy in Greece is among the highest in the world; a 2011 OECD report placed it at 80.3 years, above the OECD average of 79.5,[340] while a more recent 2017 study found life expectancy in 2015 to be 81.1 years, slightly above the EU average of 80.6.[341] The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of nonagenarians in the world; approximately 33% of islanders are 90 or older.[342] Icaria is subsequently classified as a "blue zone", a region where people allegedly live longer than average and have lower rates of cancer, heart disease, or other chronic illnesses.[343]

The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members.[340] The country's obesity rate is 18.1%, which is above the OECD average of 15.1%, but considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7%.[340] In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5%.[344] Infant mortality, with a rate of 3.6 deaths per 1,000 live births, was below the 2007 OECD average of 4.9.[340]

Culture

The Ancient Theatre of Epidaurus, still used for theatrical plays.

The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.

In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture.[345][30] Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including logic, biology, geometry, geography, medicine, history,[346] philosophy,[347] physics and mathematics.[348] They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, comedy and drama. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.[349]

Visual arts

Close-up of the Charioteer of Delphi, a celebrated statue from the 5th century BC.

Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.[350]

There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae. Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome.

Ancient Greek sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th century, that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact.[351]

The art production continued also during the Byzantine era. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract", or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favour of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies. The Macedonian art (Byzantine) was the artistic expression of Macedonian Renaissance, a label sometimes used to describe the period of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire (867–1056), especially the 10th century, which some scholars have seen as a time of increased interest in classical scholarship and the assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork.

Post Byzantine art schools include the Cretan School and Heptanese School. The first artistic movement in the Greek Kingdom can be considered the Greek academic art of the 19th century (Munich School). Notable modern Greek painters include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Theodoros Vryzakis, Nikiforos Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis, Nikos Engonopoulos and Yannis Tsarouchis, while some notable sculptors are Pavlos Prosalentis, Ioannis Kossos, Leonidas Drosis, Georgios Bonanos and Yannoulis Chalepas.

Architecture

Towerhouses of Vatheia in Mani peninsula.

The architecture of ancient Greece was produced by the ancient Greeks (Hellenes), whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Aegean Islands and their colonies, for a period from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC. The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in particular the division of architectural style into three defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on Western architecture of later periods.

Byzantine architecture is the architecture promoted by the Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, which dominated Greece and the Greek speaking world during the Middle Ages. The empire endured for more than a millennium, dramatically influencing Medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East, and becoming the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.

After the Greek Independence, the modern Greek architects tried to combine traditional Greek and Byzantine elements and motives with the western European movements and styles. Patras was the first city of the modern Greek state to develop a city plan. In January 1829, Stamatis Voulgaris, a Greek engineer of the French army, presented the plan of the new city to the Governor Kapodistrias, who approved it. Voulgaris applied the orthogonal rule in the urban complex of Patras.[352]

Two special genres can be considered the Cycladic architecture, featuring white-coloured houses, in the Cyclades and the Epirotic architecture in the region of Epirus.[353][354] Important is also the influence of the Venetian style in the Ionian islands and the "Mediterranean style" of Florestano Di Fausto (during the years of the fascist regime) in the Dodecanese islands.[355]

After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, the architecture of Athens and other cities was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto of Greece, commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan fit for the capital of a state. As for Thessaloniki, after the fire of 1917, the government ordered for a new city plan under the supervision of Ernest Hébrard. Other modern Greek architects include Anastasios Metaxas, Lysandros Kaftanzoglou, Panagis Kalkos, Ernst Ziller, Xenophon Paionidis, Dimitris Pikionis and Georges Candilis.

Theatre

Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù, the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece.

Theatre in its western form was born in Greece.[356] The city-state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there.

During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state.[357] Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.

The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.

The National Theatre of Greece was opened in 1900 as Royal Theatre.[358] Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.

Literature

Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature.[359]

Athens is considered the birthplace of Western literature.[360] At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Though dates of composition vary, these works were fixed around 800 BC or after. In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama.

Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only a limited number of plays by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are also a treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers.

Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages. Although popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature both began in the 11th century, the two are indistinguishable.[361]

Constantine P. Cavafy, whose work was inspired mainly by the Hellenistic past, while Odysseas Elytis (centre) and Giorgos Seferis (right) were representatives of the Generation of the '30s and Nobel laureates in Literature.

Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is considered the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). Later, during the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared with their works the Greek Revolution (1821–1830).

Leading figures of modern Greek literature include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Demetrius Vikelas, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, Nikos Kavvadias, Kostas Varnalis and Kiki Dimoula. Two Greek authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.

Philosophy

A statue of Plato in Athens.

Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics," which designates that they came before Socrates, whose contributions mark a turning point in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of their original writings survive, in some cases merely a single sentence.

A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with them many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of a comprehensive system.

Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given to us by experience. Except from these three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.[362]

Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by a Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.

On the eve of the Fall of Constantinople, Gemistus Pletho tried to restore the use of the term "Hellene" and advocated the return to the Olympian Gods of the ancient world. After 1453 a number of Greek Byzantine scholars who fled to western Europe contributed to the Renaissance.

In modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment", "illumination") was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis.

Other modern era Greek philosophers or political scientists include Cornelius Castoriadis, Nicos Poulantzas and Christos Yannaras.

Music and dances

Rebetes in Karaiskaki, Piraeus (1933). Left Markos Vamvakaris with bouzouki.

Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments during that period included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called a kithara. Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had effect on Greek music.

While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As a result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, this method which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant; a melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power.

Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song (Demotiko) which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is a unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, their joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.

Mikis Theodorakis was one of the most popular and significant Greek composers

The Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern urban popular song, influencing its development to a considerable degree. For the first part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revue, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' theater scene.

Rebetiko, initially a music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability. It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Vassilis Tsitsanis, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria.

Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all the major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is notable for the birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.

In the 20th century, Greek composers have had a significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. At the same time, composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following for their music, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and a Day, Chariots of Fire, Blade Runner, among others. Greek American composers known for their film scores include also Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Notable Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.

During the dictatorship of the Colonels, the music of Mikis Theodorakis was banned by the junta and the composer was jailed, internally exiled, and put in a concentration camp,[363] before finally being allowed to leave Greece due to international reaction to his detention. Released during the junta years, Anthrope Agapa, ti Fotia Stamata (Make Love, Stop the Gunfire), by the pop group Poll is considered the first anti-war protest song in the history of Greek rock.[364] The song was echoing the hippie slogan Make love, not war and was inspired directly by the Vietnam War, becoming a "smash hit" in Greece.[365]

Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece won with the song "My Number One", performed by Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou. The song received 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany and also became a smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece. The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, with hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas.

Cuisine

A Greek salad, with feta and olives.

Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy Mediterranean diet, which is epitomised by dishes of Crete.[366] Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into a variety of local dishes such as moussaka, pastitsio, classic Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish.

Some sweet desserts include melomakarona, diples and galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and a variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.

Cinema

Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896, but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907 in Athens. In 1914, the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), containing one of the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944, Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.

Theodoros Angelopoulos, winner of the Palme d'Or in 1998, notable director in the history of the European cinema

The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be a "golden age" of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognised as important figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: George Tzavellas, Irene Papas, Melina Mercouri, Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti and others. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Some notable films include The Drunkard (1950, directed by George Tzavellas), The Counterfeit Coin (1955, by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956, by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955, directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis), Woe to the Young (1961, by Alekos Sakellarios), Glory Sky (1962, by Takis Kanellopoulos) and The Red Lanterns (1963, by Vasilis Georgiadis)

Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed in this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Madalena, I theia ap' to Chicago, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more.

During the 1970s and 1980s, Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.

There are also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French Costa-Gavras and the Greek-Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne.

More recently Yorgos Lanthimos (film and stage director, producer, and screenwriter) has received four Academy Award nominations for his work, including Best Foreign Language Film for Dogtooth (2009), Best Original Screenplay for The Lobster (2015), and Best Picture and Best Director for The Favourite (2018).

Sports

Spyridon Louis entering the Panathenaic Stadium at the end of the marathon; 1896 Summer Olympics.
Angelos Charisteas scoring Greece's winning goal in the UEFA Euro 2004 Final

Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations, Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won a total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.

The Greek national football team, ranking 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached a high of 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011),[367] were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport.[368] The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country, comprising sixteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, and AEK Athens.

The Greek national basketball team has a decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered among the world's top basketball powers. As of 2012, it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.[369] They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005,[370] and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship, after a 101–95 win against Team USA in the tournament's semifinal. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens and P.A.O.K. Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years, having won 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than 4 Euroleague championships in this period. Besides the 9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Panathinaikos, Olympiacos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K, Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2 Korać Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup. After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.

The Greek national basketball team in 2008. Twice European champions (1987 and 2005) and second in the world in 2006

The Greece women's national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after their gold medal win against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship. They also won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece men's national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005, after their win against Croatia in the bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada. The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men's Water Polo League and Greek Women's Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions. In men's European competitions, Olympiacos has won the Champions League,[371] the European Super Cup and the Triple Crown in 2002[372] becoming the first club in water polo history to win every title in which it has competed within a single year (National championship, National cup, Champions League and European Super Cup),[373] while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup Winners' Cup in 1997. In women's European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the most successful in European water polο, having won 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2 European Supercups.

The Greek men's national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the Men's European Volleyball League, a 5th place in the Olympic Games and a 6th place in the FIVB Volleyball Men's World Championship. The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have had significant success in European competitions. Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek club to have won European titles; they have won two CEV Cups, they have been CEV Champions League runners-up twice and they have played in 12 Final Fours in the European competitions, making them one of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe. Iraklis have also seen significant success in European competitions, having been three times runners-up of the CEV Champions League.

In handball, AC Diomidis Argous is the only Greek club to have won a European Cup.

Apart from these, cricket is relatively popular in Corfu.

Mythology

The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek epics (The Odyssey and The Iliad) and other pieces of art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology. Apart from serving a religious function, the mythology of the ancient Greek world also served a cosmological role as it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed and operated.

The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the Dodekatheon, or the Twelve Gods, who lived on the top of Mount Olympus. The most important of all ancient Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was married to his sister, Hera. The other Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Hermes. Apart from these twelve gods, Greeks also had a variety of other mystical beliefs, such as nymphs and other magical creatures.

Public holidays and festivals

Procession in honor of the Assumption of Virgin Mary (15 August)

According to Greek law, every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. Since the late '70s, Saturday also is a non-school and not working day. In addition, there are four mandatory official public holidays: 25 March (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, 15 August (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin), and 25 December (Christmas). 1 May (Labour Day) and 28 October (Ohi Day) are regulated by law as being optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed national holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven national holidays each year.

In addition to the national holidays, there are public holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint" parallel to "Name Days", or a "Liberation Day". On such days it is customary for schools to take the day off.

Notable festivals, beyond the religious fests, include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe.[374]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The Church of Greece is recognized by the Greek Constitution as the prevailing religion in Greece,[1] and is the only country in the world where Eastern Orthodoxy is clearly recognized as a state religion.[2]
  2. ^ Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, romanized: Elliniki Dimokratia, [eliniˈci ðimokraˈti.a]
  3. ^ See:[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]
  4. ^ See:[28][29][30]
  5. ^ On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.
  6. ^ See:[143][144][145][146][147]
  7. ^ For a diachronic analysis of the Greek party system see Pappas 2003, pp. 90–114, who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, a predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), a system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and a two-party system (since 1981).

References

Citations

  1. ^ [1] The Constitution of Greece: Section II Relations of Church and State: Article 3, Hellenic Resources network.
  2. ^ Enyedi, Zsolt; Madeley, John T.S. (2 August 2004). Church and State in Contemporary Europe. Routledge. p. 228. ISBN 9781135761417. Both as a state church and as a national church, the Orthodox Church of Greece has a lot in common with Protestant state churches, and even with Catholicism in some countries.
  3. ^ a b "Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe". Pew Research Center. 10 May 2017. Retrieved 9 September 2017.
  4. ^ "Country Comparison: Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 7 January 2013.
  5. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
  6. ^ "Statistics - ELSTAT". www.statistics.gr. Retrieved 30 April 2021.
  7. ^ a b Απογραφή Πληθυσμού – Κατοικιών 2011. ΜΟΝΙΜΟΣ Πληθυσμός [Results of Population-Housing Census 2011 concerning the permanent population of the country] (PDF) (in Greek). 20 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2016.
  8. ^ "Announcement of the results of the 2011 Population Census for the Resident Population" (PDF). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 28 December 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013.
  9. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database: October 2021". Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. 12 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2021.
  10. ^ "Income inequality, 2020". Piraeus: Hellenic Statistical Authority. 23 September 2021. Retrieved 23 September 2021.
  11. ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
  12. ^ "The Strategic Importance of Greece". geopoliticalfutures.com. 5 April 2016. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  13. ^ "The Geopolitics of Greece: "One cannot afford anymore to manage the Greek crisis without due consideration of its geopolitical consequences"". janelanaweb.com. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  14. ^ "The Geostrategic Value of Greece and Sweden in the Current Struggle between Russia and NATO". atlanticcouncil.org. 19 December 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  15. ^ Kitsikis, Dimitri. "The Geopolitical Importance of Greece through the Ages". academia.edu. Retrieved 6 March 2017. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ "The Role of Greece in the Geostrategic Chessboard of Natural Gas". naturalgasworld.com. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  17. ^ "Geopolitical Consequences Of 'Grexit' Would Be Huge". bmiresearch.com. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  18. ^ "Greece can still be a geopolitical asset for the EU". europesworld.org. Archived from the original on 11 January 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
  19. ^ "Greece and NATO: a long lasting relationship". nato.int. Retrieved 6 March 2017.
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  21. ^ a b Eugene N. Borza (1992). In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-691-00880-6.
  22. ^ Zimmer, Carl (10 July 2019). "A Skull Bone Discovered in Greece May Alter the Story of Human Prehistory - The bone, found in a cave, is the oldest modern human fossil ever discovered in Europe. It hints that humans began leaving Africa far earlier than once thought". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 July 2019.
  23. ^ Staff (10 July 2019). "'Oldest remains' outside Africa reset human migration clock". Phys.org. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
  24. ^ Harvati, Katerina; et al. (10 July 2019). "Apidima Cave fossils provide earliest evidence of Homo sapiens in Eurasia". Nature. 571 (7766): 500–504. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1376-z. PMID 31292546. S2CID 195873640.
  25. ^ Douka, K.; Perles, C.; Valladas, H.; Vanhaeren, M.; Hedges, R.E.M. (2011). "Franchthi Cave revisited: the age of the Aurignacian in south-eastern Europe". Antiquity Magazine: 1133.
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