Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin | |
|---|---|
 1937 portrait used for state publicity purposes | |
| General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union | |
| In office 3 April 1922 – 16 October 1952[a] | |
| Preceded by | Vyacheslav Molotov (as Responsible Secretary) |
| Succeeded by | Georgy Malenkov ( de facto ) [b] |
| Presidente del Consejo de Comisarios del Pueblo de la Unión Soviética | |
| En el cargo 6 de mayo de 1941-15 de marzo de 1946 | |
| Precedido por | Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Sucesor | Oficina abolida |
| Presidente del Consejo de Ministros de la Unión Soviética | |
| En el cargo 15 de marzo de 1946-5 de marzo de 1953 | |
| presidente | Mikhail Kalinin Nikolay Shvernik |
| Primeros diputados | |
| Precedido por | Vyacheslav Molotov |
| Sucesor | Georgy Malenkov |
| Miembro de la Asamblea Constituyente de Rusia | |
| En el cargo 25 de noviembre de 1917 - 20 de enero de 1918 [c] | |
| Servido junto | Nikolai Kutler , Pavel Milyukov , Rodichev, Maxim Vinaver , Cherepanov, Evdokimov, Mikhail Kalinin , Józef Unszlicht , Grigory Zinoviev , Boris Kamkov , Shreider |
| Precedido por | Circunscripción establecida |
| Sucesor | Distrito electoral abolido |
| Distrito electoral | Metrópolis de Petrogrado |
| Ministro de Defensa | |
| En el cargo 15 de marzo de 1946-3 de marzo de 1947 | |
| Precedido por | él mismo como Comisario del Pueblo de Defensa de la Unión Soviética |
| Sucesor | Nikolai Bulganin |
| Comisario del Pueblo para las Nacionalidades de la RSFSR | |
| En el cargo 8 de noviembre de 1917 - 7 de julio de 1923 | |
| Precedido por | Posición establecida |
| Sucesor | Puesto abolido |
| Comisario del Pueblo de Defensa de la Unión Soviética | |
| En el cargo 19 de julio de 1941-25 de febrero de 1946 | |
| Precedido por | Semyon Timoshenko |
| Sucesor | él mismo como Comisario Popular de las Fuerzas Armadas de la Unión Soviética |
| Detalles personales | |
| Nació | Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili [d] 18 de diciembre [ OS 6] 1878 Gori , Gobernación de Tiflis , Virreinato del Cáucaso , Imperio Ruso (ahora Georgia ) |
| Fallecido | 5 de marzo de 1953 (74 años) Kuntsevo Dacha , Kuntsevo , Moscú , RSFS de Rusia , Unión Soviética (ahora Rusia ) |
| Causa de la muerte | Hemorragia cerebral |
| Lugar de descanso | Mausoleo de Lenin , Moscú (9 de marzo de 1953 - 31 de octubre de 1961) Necrópolis de la muralla del Kremlin , Moscú (desde el 31 de octubre de 1961) |
| Partido político | RSDLP (1898-1903) RSDLP ( bolcheviques ) (1903-1918) PCUS (1918-1953) |
| Esposos) | |
| Niños | |
| Madre | Ekaterine Geladze |
| Padre | Besarion Jughashvili |
| Educación | Seminario espiritual de Tbilisi |
| Gabinete | Stalin I - II |
| Firma |  |
| Servicio militar | |
| Apodo (s) | Koba |
| Allegiance | Soviet Union |
| Branch/service | Soviet Armed Forces |
| Years of service |
|
| Rank | Marshal of the Soviet Union (1943) |
| Commands |
|
| Battles/wars | |
| Awards |
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Central institution membership Other offices held
| |
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin[f] (born Ioseb Besarionis dzе Jughashvili;[g] 18 December [O.S. 6 December] 1878[1] – 5 March 1953) was a Georgian revolutionary and political leader who governed the Soviet Union from 1924 until his death in 1953. He served as both General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–1952) and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union (1941–1953). Despite initially governing the country as part of a collective leadership, he ultimately consolidated power to become the Soviet Union's dictator by the 1930s. A Comunista ideológicamente comprometido con la interpretación leninista del marxismo , Stalin formalizó estas ideas como marxismo-leninismo, mientras que sus propias políticas se conocen como estalinismo .
Born to a poor family in Gori in the Russian Empire (now Georgia), Stalin attended the Tbilisi Spiritual Seminary before eventually joining the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He went on to edit the party's newspaper, Pravda, and raised funds for Vladimir Lenin's Bolshevik faction via robberies, kidnappings and protection rackets. Repeatedly arrested, he underwent several internal exiles. After the Bolsheviks seized power during the October Revolution and created a one-party statebajo el recién formado Partido Comunista en 1917, Stalin se unió al Politburó gobernante . Sirviendo en la Guerra Civil Rusa antes de supervisar el establecimiento de la Unión Soviética en 1922, Stalin asumió el liderazgo del país luego de la muerte de Lenin en 1924 . Bajo Stalin, el socialismo en un país se convirtió en un principio central del dogma del partido . Como resultado de los planes quinquenales implementados bajo su liderazgo, el país experimentó una colectivización agrícola y una rápida industrialización , creando una economía de comando centralizada.. Esto provocó graves trastornos en la producción de alimentos que contribuyeron a la hambruna de 1932-1933 . Para erradicar a los acusados " enemigos de la clase trabajadora ", Stalin instituyó la Gran Purga , en la que más de un millón fueron encarcelados y al menos 700.000 ejecutados entre 1934 y 1939. Para 1937, tenía el control absoluto sobre el partido y el gobierno.
Stalin promovió el marxismo-leninismo en el extranjero a través de la Internacional Comunista y apoyó los movimientos antifascistas europeos durante la década de 1930, particularmente en la Guerra Civil española . En 1939, su régimen firmó un pacto de no agresión con la Alemania nazi , que resultó en la invasión soviética de Polonia . Alemania puso fin al pacto invadiendo la Unión Soviética en 1941. A pesar de sufrir enormes pérdidas y numerosas derrotas en las primeras etapas del conflicto, el Ejército Rojo soviético finalmente repelió la invasión alemana y capturó Berlín en 1945, poniendo así fin a la Segunda Guerra Mundial. in Europe. In the process of defeating Germany and its allies, the Soviets annexed the Baltic states and established Soviet-aligned governments throughout Central and Eastern Europe, China, and North Korea.
By the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as global superpowers. The ensuing deterioration of relations between the Soviet-backed Eastern Bloc and U.S.-backed Western Bloc gave rise to a sustained period of tensions known as the Cold War that lasted until 1989.[2] In the final years of his leadership, Stalin presided over the post-war reconstruction of the Soviet Union as well as the development of a Soviet atomic bomb in 1949. During these years, the country experienced another major famine and an antisemitic campaign that culminated in the doctors' plot. After A la muerte de Stalin en 1953, finalmente fue sucedido por Nikita Khrushchev , quien posteriormente denunció su gobierno e inició la desestalinización de la sociedad soviética .
Widely considered to be one of the 20th century's most significant figures, Stalin was the subject of a pervasive personality cult within the international Marxist–Leninist movement, which revered him as a champion of the working class and socialism. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Stalin has retained popularity in Russia and Georgia as a victorious wartime leader who cemented the Soviet Union's status as a leading world power. Conversely, his regime has been described as totalitarian, with Stalin achieving a personal dictatorship by the 1930s, and has been widely condemned for overseeing mass repression, ethnic cleansing, wide-scale deportation, cientos de miles de ejecuciones y hambrunas que mataron a millones .
Vida temprana
De la niñez a la adultez temprana: 1878–1899
El nombre de nacimiento de Stalin era Ioseb Besarionis dzе Jughashvili . [h] Nació en la ciudad georgiana de Gori , [3] entonces parte de la gobernación de Tiflis del Imperio Ruso y hogar de una mezcla de comunidades georgianas, armenias, rusas y judías. [4] Nació el 18 de diciembre [ OS 6 de diciembre] 1878 [5] [i] y fue bautizado el 29 de diciembre. [7] Sus padres, Besarion Jughashvili y Ekaterine Geladze , [8] eran étnicamente georgianos , y Stalin creció hablando el idioma georgiano .[9] Fue su único hijo que sobrevivió a la infancia [10] y fue apodado "Soso", un diminutivo de "Ioseb". [11]
Besarion era un zapatero que trabajaba en un taller propiedad de otro hombre; [12] Inicialmente fue un éxito financiero, pero luego cayó en declive, [13] y la familia se encontró viviendo en la pobreza. [14] Besarion se volvió alcohólico [15] y golpeó borracho a su esposa e hijo. [16] Ekaterine y Stalin dejaron la casa en 1883 y comenzaron una vida errante, moviéndose a través de nueve habitaciones alquiladas diferentes durante la siguiente década. [17] En 1886, se mudaron a la casa de un amigo de la familia, el padre Christopher Charkviani. [18] Ekaterine trabajaba como limpiadora y lavandera y estaba decidida a enviar a su hijo a la escuela. [19]En septiembre de 1888, Stalin se matriculó en la Escuela de la Iglesia Gori, un lugar asegurado por Charkviani. [20] Aunque se metió en muchas peleas, [21] Stalin sobresalió académicamente, [22] mostrando talento en las clases de pintura y teatro, [23] escribiendo su propia poesía , [24] y cantando como niño de coro. [25] Stalin enfrentó varios problemas de salud graves: una infección de viruela de 1884 lo dejó con cicatrices faciales; [26] ya los 12 años resultó gravemente herido cuando fue golpeado por un faetón , probablemente la causa de una discapacidad de por vida en su brazo izquierdo. [27]
En agosto de 1894, Stalin se matriculó en el Seminario Espiritual Ortodoxo de Tiflis , habilitado por una beca que le permitió estudiar a un precio reducido. [28] Se unió a 600 sacerdotes en formación que se alojaron allí, [29] y obtuvo altas calificaciones. [30] Continuó escribiendo poesía; cinco de sus poemas, sobre temas como la naturaleza, la tierra y el patriotismo, fueron publicados bajo el seudónimo de "Soselo" en el periódico Iveria ( Georgia ) de Ilia Chavchavadze . [31] Según el biógrafo de Stalin, Simon Sebag Montefiore , se convirtieron en "clásicos georgianos menores" [32]y fueron incluidos en varias antologías de poesía georgiana durante los próximos años. [32] A medida que crecía, Stalin perdió interés en los estudios sacerdotales, sus calificaciones bajaron, [33] y fue confinado repetidamente en una celda por su comportamiento rebelde. [34] El diario del seminario señaló que se declaró ateo, abandonó las oraciones y se negó a quitarse el sombrero ante los monjes. [35]
Stalin joined a forbidden book club at the school;[36] he was particularly influenced by Nikolay Chernyshevsky's 1863 pro-revolutionary novel What Is To Be Done?[37] Another influential text was Alexander Kazbegi's The Patricide, with Stalin adopting the nickname "Koba" from that of the book's bandit protagonist.[38] He also read Capital, the 1867 book by German sociological theorist Karl Marx.[39] Stalin devoted himself to Marx's socio-political theory, Marxism,[40] which was then on the rise in Georgia, one of various forms of socialismo opuesto a las autoridades zaristas gobernantes del imperio . [41] Por la noche, asistió a reuniones secretas de trabajadores [42] y fue presentado a Silibistro "Silva" Jibladze , el fundador marxista de Mesame Dasi ("Tercer Grupo"), un grupo socialista georgiano. [43] Stalin dejó el seminario en abril de 1899 y nunca regresó. [44]
Partido Laborista Socialdemócrata Ruso: 1899-1904
En octubre de 1899, Stalin comenzó a trabajar como meteorólogo en el observatorio Tiflis. [45] Atrajo a un grupo de partidarios a través de sus clases de teoría socialista [46] y coorganizó una reunión masiva secreta de trabajadores para el 1 de mayo de 1900, [47] en la que animó con éxito a muchos de los hombres a emprender una huelga. [48] En este punto, la policía secreta del imperio, la Okhrana , estaba al tanto de las actividades de Stalin en el medio revolucionario de Tiflis. [48] Intentaron arrestarlo en marzo de 1901, pero escapó y se escondió, [49] viviendo de las donaciones de amigos y simpatizantes. [50]Mientras permanecía en la clandestinidad, ayudó a planificar una manifestación para el Primero de Mayo de 1901, en la que 3.000 manifestantes se enfrentaron a las autoridades. [51] Continuó evadiendo el arresto usando alias y durmiendo en diferentes apartamentos. [52] En noviembre de 1901, fue elegido miembro del Comité Tiflis del Partido Laborista Socialdemócrata Ruso (RSDLP), un partido marxista fundado en 1898. [53]
Ese mes, Stalin viajó a la ciudad portuaria de Batumi . [54] Su retórica militante resultó divisiva entre los marxistas de la ciudad, algunos de los cuales sospechaban que podría ser un agente provocador que trabajaba para el gobierno. [55] Encontró empleo en el almacén de la refinería de Rothschild , donde coorganizó dos huelgas de trabajadores. [56] Después de que varios líderes de la huelga fueron arrestados, coorganizó una manifestación pública masiva que llevó al asalto a la prisión; las tropas dispararon contra los manifestantes, 13 de los cuales murieron. [57] Stalin organizó otra manifestación masiva el día de su funeral, [58] antes de ser arrestado en abril de 1902.[59] Retenido primero en la prisión de Batumi [60] y luego en la prisión de Kutaisi, [61] a mediados de 1903 fue sentenciado a tres años de exilio en el este de Siberia. [62]
Stalin salió de Batumi en octubre y llegó a la pequeña ciudad siberiana de Novaya Uda a finales de noviembre de 1903. [63] Allí vivía en una casa de campesinos de dos habitaciones, durmiendo en la despensa del edificio. [64] Hizo dos intentos de fuga: en el primero, llegó a Balagansk antes de regresar debido a la congelación . [65] Su segundo intento, en enero de 1904, tuvo éxito y llegó a Tiflis. [66] Allí, coeditó un periódico marxista georgiano, Proletariatis Brdzola ("Lucha proletaria"), con Philip Makharadze . [67]Pidió que el movimiento marxista georgiano se escindiera de su homólogo ruso, lo que provocó que varios miembros del RSDLP lo acusaran de tener opiniones contrarias al espíritu del internacionalismo marxista y pidieran su expulsión del partido; pronto se retractó de sus opiniones. [68] Durante su exilio, el RSDLP se había dividido entre los " bolcheviques " de Vladimir Lenin y los " mencheviques " de Julio Mártov . [69] Stalin detestaba a muchos mencheviques en Georgia y se alineó con los bolcheviques. [70] Aunque estableció un bastión bolchevique en la ciudad minera de Chiatura , [71]El bolchevismo siguió siendo una fuerza minoritaria en la escena revolucionaria georgiana dominada por los mencheviques. [72]
Revolución de 1905 y sus secuelas: 1905-1912
En enero de 1905, las tropas gubernamentales masacraron a los manifestantes en San Petersburgo. Los disturbios pronto se extendieron por todo el Imperio Ruso en lo que se conoció como la Revolución de 1905 . [74] Georgia se vio particularmente afectada. [75] Stalin estaba en Bakú en febrero cuando estalló la violencia étnica entre armenios y azeríes; al menos 2.000 murieron. [76] Él fustigó públicamente los "pogromos contra judíos y armenios" como parte de los intentos del zar Nicolás II de "apuntalar su despreciable trono". [77]Stalin formó un escuadrón de batalla bolchevique que utilizó para tratar de mantener separadas las facciones étnicas en guerra de Bakú; también usó los disturbios como tapadera para robar equipos de impresión. [77] En medio de la creciente violencia en Georgia, formó más escuadrones de batalla, con los mencheviques haciendo lo mismo. [78] Los escuadrones de Stalin desarmaron a la policía y las tropas locales, [79] asaltaron los arsenales del gobierno [80] y recaudaron fondos mediante estafas de protección en grandes empresas y minas locales. [81] Lanzaron ataques contra las tropas cosacas del gobierno y los Cientos Negros pro-zaristas , [82]coordinando algunas de sus operaciones con la milicia menchevique. [83]
En noviembre de 1905, los bolcheviques georgianos eligieron a Stalin como uno de sus delegados a una conferencia bolchevique en San Petersburgo. [84] A su llegada, conoció a la esposa de Lenin, Nadezhda Krupskaya , quien le informó que el lugar se había trasladado a Tampere en el Gran Ducado de Finlandia . [85] En la conferencia, Stalin se reunió con Lenin por primera vez. [86] Aunque Stalin tenía a Lenin en un profundo respeto, expresó su desacuerdo con la opinión de Lenin de que los bolcheviques deberían presentar candidatos para las próximas elecciones a la Duma del Estado ; Stalin vio el proceso parlamentario como una pérdida de tiempo. [87]En abril de 1906, Stalin asistió al Cuarto Congreso del RSDLP en Estocolmo ; este fue su primer viaje fuera del Imperio Ruso. [88] En la conferencia, el RSDLP - entonces dirigido por su mayoría menchevique - acordó que no recaudaría fondos mediante el robo a mano armada. [89] Lenin y Stalin no estuvieron de acuerdo con esta decisión [90] y luego discutieron en privado cómo podrían continuar los robos por la causa bolchevique. [91]
Stalin se casó con Kato Svanidze en una ceremonia en la iglesia en Senaki en julio de 1906. [92] En marzo de 1907 tuvo un hijo, Yakov . [93] Para ese año, según el historiador Robert Service , Stalin se había establecido como "el principal bolchevique de Georgia". [94] Asistió al Quinto Congreso del RSDLP , celebrado en Londres en mayo-junio de 1907. [95] Después de regresar a Tiflis, Stalin organizó el robo de una gran entrega de dinero al Imperial Bank en junio de 1907. Su banda tendió una emboscada a los armados. convoy en la plaza de Ereváncon disparos y bombas caseras. Alrededor de 40 personas murieron, pero toda su banda escapó con vida. [96] Después del atraco, Stalin se instaló en Bakú con su esposa e hijo. [97] Allí, los mencheviques se enfrentaron a Stalin por el robo y votaron para expulsarlo del RSDLP, pero él no les hizo caso. [98]
En Bakú, Stalin aseguró el dominio bolchevique de la rama local del RSDLP [99] y editó dos periódicos bolcheviques, Bakinsky Proletary y Gudok ("Whistle"). [100] En agosto de 1907, asistió al Séptimo Congreso de la Segunda Internacional , una organización socialista internacional, en Stuttgart , Alemania. [101] En noviembre de 1907, su esposa murió de tifus , [102] y dejó a su hijo con su familia en Tiflis. [103] En Bakú había reunido a su banda, el Equipo, [104]que continuó atacando a los Black Hundreds y recaudó las finanzas mediante la ejecución de estafas de protección, la falsificación de moneda y la realización de robos. [105] También secuestraron a los hijos de varias figuras adineradas para extraer el dinero del rescate. [106] A principios de 1908, viajó a la ciudad suiza de Ginebra para reunirse con Lenin y el destacado marxista ruso Georgi Plekhanov , aunque este último lo exasperó. [107]
En marzo de 1908, Stalin fue arrestado e internado en la prisión de Bailov en Bakú. [108] Allí dirigió a los bolcheviques encarcelados, organizó grupos de discusión y ordenó el asesinato de presuntos informantes. [109] Finalmente fue sentenciado a dos años de exilio en el pueblo de Solvychegodsk , provincia de Vologda , y llegó allí en febrero de 1909. [110] En junio, escapó del pueblo y llegó a Kotlas disfrazado de mujer y de allí a Saint San Petersburgo. [111] En marzo de 1910, fue arrestado nuevamente y enviado de regreso a Solvychegodsk. [112]Allí tuvo aventuras con al menos dos mujeres; su casera, Maria Kuzakova, más tarde dio a luz a su segundo hijo, Konstantin . [113] En junio de 1911, Stalin recibió permiso para trasladarse a Vologda , donde permaneció durante dos meses, [114] teniendo una relación con Pelageya Onufrieva. [115] Escapó a San Petersburgo, [116] donde fue arrestado en septiembre de 1911 y condenado a tres años más de exilio en Vologda. [117]
Ascenso al Comité Central y dirección de Pravda : 1912-1917
En enero de 1912, mientras Stalin estaba en el exilio, el primer Comité Central bolchevique fue elegido en la Conferencia de Praga . [118] Poco después de la conferencia, Lenin y Grigory Zinoviev decidieron incorporar a Stalin al comité. [118] Aún en Vologda, Stalin estuvo de acuerdo, siendo miembro del Comité Central por el resto de su vida. [119] Lenin creía que Stalin, como georgiano, ayudaría a asegurar el apoyo de los bolcheviques de las minorías étnicas del imperio. [120] En febrero de 1912, Stalin volvió a escapar a San Petersburgo, [121] encargado de convertir el semanario bolchevique Zvezda("Estrella") en un diario, Pravda ("Verdad"). [122] El nuevo periódico se lanzó en abril de 1912, [123] aunque el papel de Stalin como editor se mantuvo en secreto. [123]
En mayo de 1912, fue arrestado nuevamente y encarcelado en la prisión de Shpalerhy, antes de ser condenado a tres años de exilio en Siberia. [124] En julio, llegó al pueblo siberiano de Narym , [125] donde compartió una habitación con un compañero bolchevique Yakov Sverdlov . [126] Después de dos meses, Stalin y Sverdlov escaparon de regreso a San Petersburgo. [127] Durante un breve período en Tiflis, Stalin y el equipo planearon la emboscada de un coche de correo, durante la cual la mayoría del grupo, aunque no Stalin, fueron detenidos por las autoridades. [128] Stalin regresó a San Petersburgo, donde continuó editando y escribiendo artículos para Pravda .[129]
Después de las elecciones a la Duma de octubre de 1912 , en las que se eligieron seis bolcheviques y seis mencheviques, Stalin escribió artículos pidiendo la reconciliación entre las dos facciones marxistas, por lo que Lenin lo criticó. [130] A finales de 1912, Stalin cruzó dos veces al Imperio Austro-Húngaro para visitar a Lenin en Cracovia , [131] finalmente se inclinó ante la oposición de Lenin a la reunificación con los mencheviques. [132] En enero de 1913, Stalin viajó a Viena , [133] donde investigó la "cuestión nacional" de cómo los bolcheviques deberían tratar con las minorías nacionales y étnicas del Imperio ruso. [134]Lenin, que animó a Stalin a escribir un artículo sobre el tema, [135] quería atraer a esos grupos a la causa bolchevique ofreciéndoles el derecho de secesión del Estado ruso, pero también esperaba que siguieran siendo parte de un futuro gobernado por los bolcheviques. Rusia. [136]
El artículo de Stalin El marxismo y la cuestión nacional [137] se publicó por primera vez en los números de marzo, abril y mayo de 1913 de la revista bolchevique Prosveshcheniye ; [138] A Lenin le gustó. [139] Según Montefiore, esta fue "la obra más famosa de Stalin". [136] El artículo fue publicado bajo el seudónimo "K. Stalin", [139] un nombre que había usado desde 1912. [140] Derivado de la palabra rusa para acero ( stal ), [141] esto se ha traducido como " Hombre de Acero"; [142] Es posible que Stalin pretendiera que imitara el seudónimo de Lenin. [143]Stalin conservó el nombre por el resto de su vida, posiblemente porque se usó en el artículo que estableció su reputación entre los bolcheviques. [144]
En febrero de 1913, Stalin fue arrestado mientras estaba en San Petersburgo. [145] Fue sentenciado a cuatro años de exilio en Turukhansk , una parte remota de Siberia de la que escapar fue particularmente difícil. [146] En agosto, llegó a la aldea de Monastyrskoe, aunque después de cuatro semanas fue trasladado a la aldea de Kostino. [147] En marzo de 1914, preocupadas por un posible intento de fuga, las autoridades trasladaron a Stalin a la aldea de Kureika en el borde del Círculo Polar Ártico . [148] En la aldea, Stalin tenía una relación con Lidia Pereprygia, que en ese momento tenía trece años y, por lo tanto, un año menos de la edad legal de consentimiento en la Rusia zarista.[149] En o alrededor de diciembre de 1914, Pereprygia dio a luz al hijo de Stalin, aunque el bebé murió pronto. [150] Ella dio a luz a otro de sus hijos, Alexander, alrededor de abril de 1917. [151] [152]
En Kureika, Stalin convivió estrechamente con los indígenas Tunguses y Ostyak , [153] y pasó gran parte de su tiempo pescando. [154]
Revolución rusa: 1917
Mientras Stalin estaba en el exilio, Rusia entró en la Primera Guerra Mundial , y en octubre de 1916 Stalin y otros bolcheviques exiliados fueron reclutados en el ejército ruso , partiendo hacia Monastyrskoe. [155] Llegaron a Krasnoyarsk en febrero de 1917, [156] donde un médico forense dictaminó que Stalin no era apto para el servicio militar debido a su brazo paralizado. [157] Se requirió que Stalin sirviera cuatro meses más en su exilio, y solicitó con éxito que lo sirviera en la cercana Achinsk . [158] Stalin estaba en la ciudad cuando la Revolución de Febrerotuvo lugar estallaron levantamientos en Petrogrado - como se había rebautizado a San Petersburgo - y el zar Nicolás II abdicó para evitar ser derrocado violentamente. El Imperio Ruso se convirtió en una república de facto , encabezada por un gobierno provisional dominado por liberales. [159] Con ánimo de celebración, Stalin viajó en tren a Petrogrado en marzo. [160] Allí, Stalin y un compañero bolchevique Lev Kamenev asumieron el control de Pravda , [161] y Stalin fue nombrado representante bolchevique en el Comité Ejecutivo del Soviet de Petrogrado , un influyente consejo de trabajadores de la ciudad. [162]En abril, Stalin quedó tercero en las elecciones bolcheviques para el Comité Central del partido; Lenin fue el primero y Zinoviev fue el segundo. [163] Esto reflejaba su posición superior en el partido en ese momento. [164]
El gobierno existente de terratenientes y capitalistas debe ser reemplazado por un nuevo gobierno, un gobierno de trabajadores y campesinos.
El pseudogobierno existente que no fue elegido por el pueblo y que no rinde cuentas al pueblo debe ser reemplazado por un gobierno reconocido por el pueblo, elegido por representantes de los trabajadores, soldados y campesinos y que rinda cuentas a sus representantes.
- Editorial de Stalin en Pravda , octubre de 1917 [165]
Stalin ayudó a organizar el levantamiento de las Jornadas de Julio , una demostración armada de fuerza por parte de los partidarios bolcheviques. [166] Después de que la manifestación fue reprimida, el Gobierno Provisional inició una ofensiva contra los bolcheviques, asaltando Pravda . [167] Durante esta redada, Stalin sacó de contrabando a Lenin de la oficina del periódico y se hizo cargo de la seguridad del líder bolchevique, trasladándolo entre las casas francas de Petrogrado antes de llevarlo de contrabando a Razliv . [168] En ausencia de Lenin, Stalin continuó editando Pravda y se desempeñó como líder interino de los bolcheviques, supervisando el Sexto Congreso del partido , que se celebró de forma encubierta. [169]Lenin comenzó a pedir a los bolcheviques que tomaran el poder derrocando al Gobierno Provisional en un golpe de estado . Stalin y un colega bolchevique de alto rango, Leon Trotsky, respaldaron el plan de acción de Lenin, pero inicialmente Kámenev y otros miembros del partido se opusieron a él. [170] Lenin regresó a Petrogrado y obtuvo una mayoría a favor de un golpe en una reunión del Comité Central el 10 de octubre. [171]
El 24 de octubre, la policía allanó las oficinas de los periódicos bolcheviques, destrozando maquinaria y prensas; Stalin rescató parte de este equipo para continuar con sus actividades. [172] En las primeras horas del 25 de octubre, Stalin se unió a Lenin en una reunión del Comité Central en el Instituto Smolny , desde donde se dirigió el golpe bolchevique , la Revolución de Octubre . [173] La milicia bolchevique se apoderó de la central eléctrica de Petrogrado, la oficina principal de correos, el banco estatal, la central telefónica y varios puentes. [174] Un barco controlado por los bolcheviques, el Aurora , abrió fuego contra el Palacio de Invierno.; los delegados reunidos del Gobierno Provisional se rindieron y fueron arrestados por los bolcheviques. [175] Aunque se le había encomendado la tarea de informar a los delegados bolcheviques del Segundo Congreso de los Soviets sobre la situación en desarrollo, el papel de Stalin en el golpe no había sido públicamente visible. [176] Trotsky y otros posteriores oponentes bolcheviques de Stalin usaron esto como evidencia de que su papel en el golpe había sido insignificante, aunque los historiadores posteriores lo rechazan. [177] Según el historiador Oleg Khlevniuk , Stalin "desempeñó un papel importante [en la Revolución de Octubre] ... como un bolchevique de alto rango, miembro del Comité Central del partido y editor de su principal periódico"; [178]el historiador Stephen Kotkin señaló de manera similar que Stalin había estado "en medio de los acontecimientos" en la preparación del golpe. [179]
En el gobierno de Lenin
Consolidación del poder: 1917-1918
El 26 de octubre de 1917, Lenin se declaró presidente de un nuevo gobierno, el Consejo de Comisarios del Pueblo ("Sovnarkom"). [180] Stalin respaldó la decisión de Lenin de no formar una coalición con los mencheviques y el Partido Socialista Revolucionario , aunque formaron un gobierno de coalición con los socialistas revolucionarios de izquierda . [181] Stalin pasó a formar parte de un cuarteto informal que dirigía el gobierno, junto a Lenin, Trotsky y Sverdlov; [182] de estos, Sverdlov estuvo ausente regularmente y murió en marzo de 1919. [183] La oficina de Stalin estaba ubicada cerca de la de Lenin en el Instituto Smolny , [184]y él y Trotsky eran las únicas personas a las que se les permitía acceder al estudio de Lenin sin cita previa. [185] Aunque no tan conocido públicamente como Lenin o Trotsky, [186] la importancia de Stalin entre los bolcheviques creció. [187] Co-firmó los decretos de Lenin que cerraban periódicos hostiles, [188] y, junto con Sverdlov, presidió las sesiones del comité que redactaba una constitución para la nueva República Socialista Federativa Soviética de Rusia . [189] Apoyó firmemente la formación de Lenin del servicio de seguridad de la Cheka y el subsiguiente Terror Rojo.que inició; Al señalar que la violencia estatal había demostrado ser una herramienta eficaz para las potencias capitalistas, creía que resultaría lo mismo para el gobierno soviético. [190] A diferencia de los bolcheviques de alto rango como Kamenev y Nikolai Bujarin , Stalin nunca expresó su preocupación por el rápido crecimiento y expansión de la Cheka y el Terror Rojo. [190]
Habiendo abandonado su dirección de Pravda , [191] Stalin fue nombrado Comisario del Pueblo para las Nacionalidades. [192] Tomó a Nadezhda Alliluyeva como su secretaria [193] y en algún momento se casó con ella, aunque se desconoce la fecha de la boda. [194] En noviembre de 1917, firmó el Decreto sobre la Nacionalidad , otorgando a las minorías étnicas y nacionales que viven en Rusia el derecho a la secesión y la autodeterminación. [195] El propósito del decreto fue principalmente estratégico; los bolcheviques querían ganarse el favor de las minorías étnicas, pero esperaban que estas últimas no desearan realmente la independencia. [196]Ese mes, viajó a Helsinki para hablar con los finlandeses socialdemócratas , acceder a la solicitud de Finlandia por la independencia en diciembre . [196] Su departamento asignó fondos para el establecimiento de prensas y escuelas en los idiomas de varias minorías étnicas. [197] Los socialistas revolucionarios acusaron el discurso de Stalin sobre el federalismo y la autodeterminación nacional como un frente para las políticas centralizadoras e imperialistas de Sovnarkom . [189]
Debido a la Primera Guerra Mundial en curso, en la que Rusia luchaba contra las potencias centrales de Alemania y Austria-Hungría , el gobierno de Lenin se trasladó de Petrogrado a Moscú en marzo de 1918. Stalin, Trotsky, Sverdlov y Lenin vivían en el Kremlin . [198] Stalin apoyó el deseo de Lenin de firmar un armisticio con las potencias centrales sin importar el costo en el territorio. [199] Stalin lo consideró necesario porque, a diferencia de Lenin, no estaba convencido de que Europa estuviera al borde de la revolución proletaria . [200] Lenin finalmente convenció a los otros bolcheviques de alto rango de su punto de vista, lo que resultó en la firma de laTratado de Brest-Litovsk en marzo de 1918. [201] El tratado otorgó vastas áreas de tierra y recursos a las potencias centrales y enfureció a muchos en Rusia; los socialistas revolucionarios de izquierda se retiraron del gobierno de coalición por el tema. [202] El partido gobernante RSDLP pronto fue rebautizado, convirtiéndose en Partido Comunista Ruso . [203]
Comando militar: 1918-1921
Después de que los bolcheviques tomaron el poder, tanto los ejércitos de derecha como de izquierda se unieron contra ellos, generando la Guerra Civil Rusa . [204] Para asegurar el acceso al menguante suministro de alimentos, en mayo de 1918 Sovnarkom envió a Stalin a Tsaritsyn para hacerse cargo de la compra de alimentos en el sur de Rusia. [205] Deseoso de demostrar su valía como comandante, [206] una vez allí tomó el control de las operaciones militares regionales. [207] Se hizo amigo de dos figuras militares, Kliment Voroshilov y Semyon Budyonny , que formarían el núcleo de su base de apoyo militar y político. [208]Creyendo que la victoria estaba asegurada por la superioridad numérica, envió un gran número de tropas del Ejército Rojo a la batalla contra los ejércitos blancos antibolcheviques de la región , lo que provocó grandes pérdidas; A Lenin le preocupaba esta costosa táctica. [209] En Tsaritsyn, Stalin ordenó a la rama local de la Cheka que ejecutara a presuntos contrarrevolucionarios, a veces sin juicio [210] y, en contravención de las órdenes del gobierno, purgó las agencias militares y de recolección de alimentos de especialistas de la clase media, algunos de los cuales también ejecutado. [211] Su uso de la violencia estatal y el terror fue a una escala mayor de lo que aprobaron la mayoría de los líderes bolcheviques; [212]por ejemplo, ordenó que se incendiaran varias aldeas para garantizar el cumplimiento de su programa de compra de alimentos. [213]
En diciembre de 1918, Stalin fue enviado a Perm para dirigir una investigación sobre cómo las fuerzas blancas de Alexander Kolchak habían podido diezmar a las tropas rojas basadas allí. [214] Regresó a Moscú entre enero y marzo de 1919, [215] antes de ser asignado al Frente Occidental en Petrogrado. [216] Cuando el Tercer Regimiento Rojo desertó, ordenó la ejecución pública de los desertores capturados. [215] En septiembre fue devuelto al Frente Sur. [215] Durante la guerra, demostró su valía ante el Comité Central, mostrando decisión, determinación y voluntad para asumir responsabilidades en situaciones de conflicto. [206]Al mismo tiempo, hizo caso omiso de las órdenes y amenazó repetidamente con renunciar cuando se le ofendió. [217] Fue reprendido por Lenin en el VIII Congreso del Partido por emplear tácticas que resultaron en demasiadas muertes de soldados del Ejército Rojo. [218] En noviembre de 1919, no obstante, el gobierno le otorgó la Orden de la Bandera Roja por su servicio en tiempos de guerra. [219]
Los bolcheviques ganaron la guerra civil rusa a fines de 1919. [220] Para entonces, el Sovnarkom había centrado su atención en la difusión de la revolución proletaria en el extranjero, y con este fin formó la Internacional Comunista en marzo de 1919; Stalin asistió a su ceremonia inaugural. [221] Aunque Stalin no compartía la creencia de Lenin de que el proletariado europeo estaba al borde de la revolución, reconoció que mientras permaneciera sola, la Rusia soviética seguía siendo vulnerable. [222] En diciembre de 1918, redactó decretos reconociendo las repúblicas soviéticas gobernadas por marxistas en Estonia , Lituania y Letonia ; [223]durante la guerra civil, estos gobiernos marxistas fueron derrocados y los países bálticos se independizaron completamente de Rusia, un acto que Stalin consideró ilegítimo. [224] En febrero de 1920, fue nombrado jefe de la Inspección de Trabajadores y Campesinos ; [225] ese mismo mes también fue trasladado al Frente Caucásico. [226]
Tras los enfrentamientos anteriores entre las tropas polacas y rusas, estalló la guerra polaco-soviética a principios de 1920, cuando los polacos invadieron Ucrania y tomaron Kiev el 7 de mayo. [227] El 26 de mayo, Stalin fue trasladado a Ucrania, en el frente suroeste. [228] El Ejército Rojo volvió a tomar Kiev el 10 de junio y pronto obligó a las tropas polacas a regresar a Polonia. [229] El 16 de julio, el Comité Central decidió llevar la guerra a territorio polaco. [230] Lenin creía que el proletariado polaco se alzaría para apoyar a los rusos contra el gobierno polaco de Józef Piłsudski . [230] Stalin había advertido contra esto; él creía queel nacionalismo llevaría a las clases trabajadoras polacas a apoyar el esfuerzo bélico de su gobierno. [230] También creía que el Ejército Rojo estaba mal preparado para llevar a cabo una guerra ofensiva y que le daría a los Ejércitos Blancos la oportunidad de resurgir en Crimea , potencialmente reavivando la guerra civil. [230] Stalin perdió el argumento, después de lo cual aceptó la decisión de Lenin y la apoyó. [226] A lo largo del Frente Sudoeste, se decidió a conquistar Lviv ; Al concentrarse en este objetivo, desobedeció las órdenes a principios de agosto de transferir sus tropas para ayudar a las fuerzas de Mikhail Tukhachevsky que atacaban Varsovia. [231]
A mediados de agosto de 1920, los polacos rechazaron el avance ruso y Stalin regresó a Moscú para asistir a la reunión del Politburó. [232] En Moscú, Lenin y Trotsky lo culparon por su comportamiento en la guerra polaco-soviética. [233] Stalin se sintió humillado y subestimado; el 17 de agosto solicitó la destitución de los militares, que le fue concedida el 1 de septiembre. [234] En la IX Conferencia Bolchevique a finales de septiembre, Trotsky acusó a Stalin de "errores estratégicos" en su manejo de la guerra. [235] Trotsky afirmó que Stalin saboteó la campaña desobedeciendo las órdenes de transferencia de tropas. [236] Lenin se unió a Trotsky para criticarlo, y nadie habló en su nombre en la conferencia. [237]Stalin se sintió deshonrado y aumentó su antipatía hacia Trotsky. [218] La guerra polaco-soviética terminó el 18 de marzo de 1921, cuando se firmó un tratado de paz en Riga . [238]
Los últimos años de Lenin: 1921-1923
El gobierno soviético trató de dominar a los estados vecinos; en febrero de 1921 invadió la Georgia gobernada por los mencheviques , [239] mientras que en abril de 1921, Stalin ordenó que el Ejército Rojo entrara en Turkestán para reafirmar el control estatal ruso. [240] Como Comisario del Pueblo para las Nacionalidades, Stalin creía que cada grupo nacional y étnico debería tener el derecho a la autoexpresión, [241] facilitado a través de " repúblicas autónomas " dentro del estado ruso en las que podían supervisar varios asuntos regionales. [242] Al adoptar este punto de vista, algunos marxistas lo acusaron de inclinarse demasiado hacia el nacionalismo burgués., mientras que otros lo acusaron de permanecer demasiado rusocéntrico al tratar de retener a estas naciones dentro del estado ruso. [241]
El Cáucaso natal de Stalin planteaba un problema particular debido a su mezcla altamente multiétnica. [243] Stalin se opuso a la idea de repúblicas autónomas separadas de Georgia, Armenia y Azerbaiyán, argumentando que probablemente oprimirían a las minorías étnicas dentro de sus respectivos territorios; en cambio, pidió una República Federativa Soviética Socialista Transcaucásica . [244] El Partido Comunista de Georgia se opuso a la idea, lo que resultó en el asunto de Georgia . [245] A mediados de 1921, Stalin regresó al sur del Cáucaso, pidiendo a los comunistas georgianos que evitaran el nacionalismo chovinista georgiano que marginaba a los abjasios y osetios.y minorías adjarianas en Georgia. [246] En este viaje, Stalin se reunió con su hijo Yakov y lo llevó de regreso a Moscú; [247] Nadezhda había dado a luz a otro de los hijos de Stalin, Vasily , en marzo de 1921. [247]
Después de la guerra civil, estallaron huelgas de trabajadores y levantamientos campesinos en toda Rusia, en gran parte en oposición al proyecto de requisición de alimentos de Sovnarkom; como antídoto, Lenin introdujo reformas orientadas al mercado: la Nueva Política Económica (NEP). [248] También hubo disturbios internos en el Partido Comunista, ya que Trotsky lideró una facción que pedía la abolición de los sindicatos; Lenin se opuso a esto y Stalin ayudó a movilizar la oposición a la posición de Trotsky. [249] Stalin también acordó supervisar el Departamento de Agitación y Propaganda en el Secretariado del Comité Central. [250] En el XI Congreso del Partido en 1922, Lenin nombró a Stalin como el nuevo Secretario General del partido.. Aunque se expresó la preocupación de que la adopción de este nuevo cargo además de los demás exageraría su carga de trabajo y le otorgaría demasiado poder, se nombró a Stalin para el cargo. [251] Para Lenin, era ventajoso tener un aliado clave en este puesto crucial. [252]
Stalin es demasiado crudo, y este defecto que es del todo aceptable en nuestro medio y en las relaciones entre nosotros como comunistas, se vuelve inaceptable en el cargo de Secretario General. Por lo tanto, propongo a los camaradas que ideen un medio para destituirlo de este trabajo y que designen para este trabajo a otra persona que se distinga del camarada Stalin en todos los demás aspectos solo por el único aspecto superior de que debe ser más tolerante, más educado. y más atento a los compañeros, menos caprichoso, etc.
- Testamento de Lenin, 4 de enero de 1923; [253] Esto posiblemente fue compuesto por Krupskaya en lugar del propio Lenin. [254]
En mayo de 1922, un derrame cerebral masivo dejó a Lenin parcialmente paralizado. [255] Residiendo en su dacha de Gorki , la conexión principal de Lenin con Sovnarkom era a través de Stalin, quien era un visitante habitual. [256] Lenin le pidió dos veces a Stalin que le procurara veneno para poder suicidarse, pero Stalin nunca lo hizo. [257] A pesar de esta camaradería, a Lenin le disgustaba lo que él llamaba la manera "asiática" de Stalin y le dijo a su hermana María que Stalin "no era inteligente". [258] Lenin y Stalin argumentaron sobre la cuestión del comercio exterior; Lenin creía que el estado soviético debería tener el monopolio del comercio exterior, pero Stalin apoyó a Grigori Sokolnikov.opina que hacerlo no era práctico en ese momento. [259] Otro desacuerdo se produjo sobre el asunto de Georgia, con Lenin apoyando el deseo del Comité Central de Georgia de una República Soviética de Georgia sobre la idea de Stalin de una Transcaucásica. [260]
También discreparon sobre la naturaleza del estado soviético. Lenin pidió el establecimiento de una nueva federación llamada "Unión de Repúblicas Soviéticas de Europa y Asia", reflejando su deseo de expansión a través de los dos continentes e insistió en que el estado ruso debería unirse a esta unión en igualdad de condiciones con los demás estados soviéticos. [261] Stalin creía que esto alentaría el sentimiento de independencia entre los no rusos, y en su lugar argumentó que las minorías étnicas se contentarían como "repúblicas autónomas" dentro de la República Socialista Federativa Soviética de Rusia. [262] Lenin acusó a Stalin de "chovinismo gran ruso"; Stalin acusó a Lenin de "liberalismo nacional". [263]Se llegó a un compromiso en el que la federación pasaría a llamarse "Unión de Repúblicas Socialistas Soviéticas" (URSS). [261] La formación de la URSS fue ratificada en diciembre de 1922; aunque oficialmente es un sistema federal, todas las decisiones importantes fueron tomadas por el Politburó gobernante del Partido Comunista de la Unión Soviética en Moscú. [264]
Sus diferencias también se volvieron personales; Lenin se enfadó especialmente cuando Stalin fue grosero con su esposa Krupskaya durante una conversación telefónica. [265] En los últimos años de su vida, Krupskaya proporcionó a las figuras gobernantes el Testamento de Lenin , una serie de notas cada vez más despectivas sobre Stalin. Estos criticaron los modales groseros y el poder excesivo de Stalin, sugiriendo que Stalin debería ser destituido del cargo de secretario general. [266] Algunos historiadores han cuestionado si Lenin alguna vez los produjo, sugiriendo en cambio que pueden haber sido escritos por Krupskaya, quien tenía diferencias personales con Stalin; [254] Sin embargo, Stalin nunca expresó públicamente su preocupación por su autenticidad. [267]
Consolidación de poder
Sucediendo a Lenin: 1924-1927
Lenin died in January 1924.[268] Stalin took charge of the funeral and was one of its pallbearers; against the wishes of Lenin's widow, the Politburo embalmed his corpse and placed it within a mausoleum in Moscow's Red Square.[269] It was incorporated into a growing personality cult devoted to Lenin, with Petrograd being renamed "Leningrad" that year.[270] To bolster his image as a devoted Leninist, Stalin gave nine lectures at Sverdlov University on the "Foundations of Leninism", later published in book form.[271] During the 13th Party Congress in May 1924, "Lenin's Testament" was read only to the leaders of the provincial delegations.[272] Embarrassed by its contents, Stalin offered his resignation as General Secretary; this act of humility saved him and he was retained in the position.[273]
As General Secretary, Stalin had a free hand in making appointments to his own staff, implanting his loyalists throughout the party and administration.[274] Favouring new Communist Party members, many from worker and peasant backgrounds, to the "Old Bolsheviks" who tended to be university educated,[275] he ensured he had loyalists dispersed across the country's regions.[276] Stalin had much contact with young party functionaries,[277] and the desire for promotion led many provincial figures to seek to impress Stalin and gain his favour.[278] Stalin also developed close relations with the trio at the heart of the secret police (first the Cheka and then its replacement, the State Political Directorate): Felix Dzerzhinsky, Genrikh Yagoda, and Vyacheslav Menzhinsky.[279] In his private life, he divided his time between his Kremlin apartment and a dacha at Zubalova;[280] his wife gave birth to a daughter, Svetlana, in February 1926.[281]
In the wake of Lenin's death, various protagonists emerged in the struggle to become his successor: alongside Stalin was Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, and Mikhail Tomsky.[282] Stalin saw Trotsky — whom he personally despised[283] — as the main obstacle to his dominance within the party.[284] While Lenin had been ill Stalin had forged an anti-Trotsky alliance with Kamenev and Zinoviev.[285] Although Zinoviev was concerned about Stalin's growing authority, he rallied behind him at the 13th Congress as a counterweight to Trotsky, who now led a party faction known as the Left Opposition.[286] The Left Opposition believed the NEP conceded too much to capitalism; Stalin was called a "rightist" for his support of the policy.[287] Stalin built up a retinue of his supporters in the Central Committee,[288] while the Left Opposition were gradually removed from their positions of influence.[289] He was supported in this by Bukharin, who, like Stalin, believed that the Left Opposition's proposals would plunge the Soviet Union into instability.[290]
In late 1924, Stalin moved against Kamenev and Zinoviev, removing their supporters from key positions.[291] In 1925, the two moved into open opposition to Stalin and Bukharin.[292] At the 14th Party Congress in December, they launched an attack against Stalin's faction, but it was unsuccessful.[293] Stalin in turn accused Kamenev and Zinoviev of reintroducing factionalism — and thus instability — into the party.[293] In mid-1926, Kamenev and Zinoviev joined with Trotsky's supporters to form the United Opposition against Stalin;[294] in October they agreed to stop factional activity under threat of expulsion, and later publicly recanted their views under Stalin's command.[295] The factionalist arguments continued, with Stalin threatening to resign in October and then December 1926 and again in December 1927.[296] In October 1927, Zinoviev and Trotsky were removed from the Central Committee;[297] the latter was exiled to Kazakhstan and later deported from the country in 1929.[298] Some of those United Opposition members who were repentant were later rehabilitated and returned to government.[299]
Stalin was now the party's supreme leader,[300] although he was not the head of government, a task he entrusted to his key ally Vyacheslav Molotov.[301] Other important supporters on the Politburo were Voroshilov, Lazar Kaganovich, and Sergo Ordzhonikidze,[302] with Stalin ensuring his allies ran the various state institutions.[303] According to Montefiore, at this point "Stalin was the leader of the oligarchs but he was far from a dictator".[304] His growing influence was reflected in naming of various locations after him; in June 1924 the Ukrainian mining town of Yuzovka became Stalino,[305] and in April 1925, Tsaritsyn was renamed Stalingrad on the order of Mikhail Kalinin and Avel Enukidze.[306]
In 1926, Stalin published On Questions of Leninism.[307] Here, he argued for the concept of "Socialism in One Country", which he presented as an orthodox Leninist perspective. It nevertheless clashed with established Bolshevik views that socialism could not be established in one country but could only be achieved globally through the process of world revolution.[307] In 1927, there was some argument in the party over Soviet policy regarding China. Stalin had called for the Chinese Communists to ally themselves with Kuomintang (KMT) nationalists, viewing a Communist-Kuomintang alliance as the best bulwark against Japanese imperial expansionism. Instead, the KMT repressed the Communists and a civil war broke out between the two sides.[308]
Dekulakisation, collectivisation, and industrialisation: 1927–1931
Economic policy
We have fallen behind the advanced countries by fifty to a hundred years. We must close that gap in ten years. Either we do this or we'll be crushed.
This is what our obligations before the workers and peasants of the USSR dictate to us.
— Stalin, February 1931[309]
The Soviet Union lagged behind the industrial development of Western countries,[310] and there had been a shortfall of grain; 1927 produced only 70% of grain produced in 1926.[311] Stalin's government feared attack from Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Poland, and Romania.[312] Many Communists, including in Komsomol, OGPU, and the Red Army, were eager to be rid of the NEP and its market-oriented approach;[313] they had concerns about those who profited from the policy: affluent peasants known as "kulaks" and small business owners or "Nepmen".[314] At this point, Stalin turned against the NEP, which put him on a course to the "left" even of Trotsky or Zinoviev.[315]
In early 1928 Stalin travelled to Novosibirsk, where he alleged that kulaks were hoarding their grain and ordered that the kulaks be arrested and their grain confiscated, with Stalin bringing much of the area's grain back to Moscow with him in February.[316] At his command, grain procurement squads surfaced across Western Siberia and the Urals, with violence breaking out between these squads and the peasantry.[317] Stalin announced that both kulaks and the "middle peasants" must be coerced into releasing their harvest.[318] Bukharin and several other Central Committee members were angry that they had not been consulted about this measure, which they deemed rash.[319] In January 1930, the Politburo approved the liquidation of the kulak class; accused kulaks were rounded up and exiled to other parts of the country or to concentration camps.[320] Large numbers died during the journey.[321] By July 1930, over 320,000 households had been affected by the de-kulakisation policy.[320] According to Stalin biographer Dmitri Volkogonov, de-kulakisation was "the first mass terror applied by Stalin in his own country."[322]
In 1929, the Politburo announced the mass collectivisation of agriculture,[324] establishing both kolkhozy collective farms and sovkhoz state farms.[325] Stalin barred kulaks from joining these collectives.[326] Although officially voluntary, many peasants joined the collectives out of fear they would face the fate of the kulaks; others joined amid intimidation and violence from party loyalists.[327] By 1932, about 62% of households involved in agriculture were part of collectives, and by 1936 this had risen to 90%.[328] Many of the collectivised peasants resented the loss of their private farmland,[329] and productivity slumped.[330] Famine broke out in many areas,[331] with the Politburo frequently ordering distribution of emergency food relief to these regions.[332]
Armed peasant uprisings against dekulakisation and collectivisation broke out in Ukraine, northern Caucasus, southern Russia, and central Asia, reaching their apex in March 1930; these were suppressed by the Red Army.[333] Stalin responded to the uprisings with an article insisting that collectivisation was voluntary and blaming any violence and other excesses on local officials.[334] Although he and Stalin had been close for many years,[335] Bukharin expressed concerns about these policies; he regarded them as a return to Lenin's old "war communism" policy and believed that it would fail. By mid-1928 he was unable to rally sufficient support in the party to oppose the reforms.[336] In November 1929 Stalin removed him from the Politburo.[337]
Officially, the Soviet Union had replaced the "irrationality" and "wastefulness" of a market economy with a planned economy organised along a long-term, precise, and scientific framework; in reality, Soviet economics were based on ad hoc commandments issued from the centre, often to make short-term targets.[338] In 1928, the first five-year plan was launched, its main focus on boosting heavy industry;[339] it was finished a year ahead of schedule, in 1932.[340] The USSR underwent a massive economic transformation.[341] New mines were opened, new cities like Magnitogorsk constructed, and work on the White Sea-Baltic Canal began.[341] Millions of peasants moved to the cities, although urban house building could not keep up with the demand.[341] Large debts were accrued purchasing foreign-made machinery.[342]
Many of major construction projects, including the White Sea-Baltic Canal and the Moscow Metro, were constructed largely through forced labour.[343] The last elements of workers' control over industry were removed, with factory managers increasing their authority and receiving privileges and perks;[344] Stalin defended wage disparity by pointing to Marx's argument that it was necessary during the lower stages of socialism.[345] To promote intensification of labour, a series of medals and awards as well as the Stakhanovite movement were introduced.[323] Stalin's message was that socialism was being established in the USSR while capitalism was crumbling amid the Wall Street crash.[346] His speeches and articles reflected his utopian vision of the Soviet Union rising to unparalleled heights of human development, creating a "new Soviet person".[347]
Cultural and foreign policy
In 1928, Stalin declared that class war between the proletariat and their enemies would intensify as socialism developed.[348] He warned of a "danger from the right", including in the Communist Party itself.[349] The first major show trial in the USSR was the Shakhty Trial of 1928, in which several middle-class "industrial specialists" were convicted of sabotage.[350] From 1929 to 1930, further show trials were held to intimidate opposition:[351] these included the Industrial Party Trial, Menshevik Trial, and Metro-Vickers Trial.[352] Aware that the ethnic Russian majority may have concerns about being ruled by a Georgian,[353] he promoted ethnic Russians throughout the state hierarchy and made the Russian language compulsory throughout schools and offices, albeit to be used in tandem with local languages in areas with non-Russian majorities.[354] Nationalist sentiment among ethnic minorities was suppressed.[355] Conservative social policies were promoted to enhance social discipline and boost population growth; this included a focus on strong family units and motherhood, re-criminalisation of homosexuality, restrictions placed on abortion and divorce, and abolition of the Zhenotdel women's department.[356]
Stalin desired a "cultural revolution",[357] entailing both creation of a culture for the "masses" and wider dissemination of previously elite culture.[358] He oversaw proliferation of schools, newspapers, and libraries, as well as advancement of literacy and numeracy.[359] Socialist realism was promoted throughout arts,[360] while Stalin personally wooed prominent writers, namely Maxim Gorky, Mikhail Sholokhov, and Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy.[361] He also expressed patronage for scientists whose research fitted within his preconceived interpretation of Marxism; for instance, he endorsed research of an agrobiologist Trofim Lysenko despite the fact that it was rejected by the majority of Lysenko's scientific peers as pseudo-scientific.[362] The government's anti-religious campaign was re-intensified,[363] with increased funding given to the League of Militant Atheists.[355] Christian, Muslim, and Buddhist clergy faced persecution.[351] Many religious buildings were demolished, most notably Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, destroyed in 1931 to make way for the (never completed) Palace of the Soviets.[364] Religion retained an influence over much of the population; in the 1937 census, 57% of respondents identified as religious.[365]
Throughout the 1920s and beyond, Stalin placed a high priority on foreign policy.[366] He personally met with a range of Western visitors, including George Bernard Shaw and H. G. Wells, both of whom were impressed with him.[367] Through the Communist International, Stalin's government exerted a strong influence over Marxist parties elsewhere in the world;[368] initially, Stalin left the running of the organisation largely to Bukharin.[369] At its 6th Congress in July 1928, Stalin informed delegates that the main threat to socialism came not from the right but from non-Marxist socialists and social democrats, whom he called "social fascists";[370] Stalin recognised that in many countries, the social democrats were the Marxist-Leninists' main rivals for working-class support.[371] This preoccupation with opposing rival leftists concerned Bukharin, who regarded the growth of fascism and the far right across Europe as a far greater threat.[369] After Bukharin's departure, Stalin placed the Communist International under the administration of Dmitry Manuilsky and Osip Piatnitsky.[368]
Stalin faced problems in his family life. In 1929, his son Yakov unsuccessfully attempted suicide; his failure earned Stalin's contempt.[372] His relationship with Nadezhda was also strained amid their arguments and her mental health problems.[373] In November 1932, after a group dinner in the Kremlin in which Stalin flirted with other women, Nadezhda shot herself.[374] Publicly, the cause of death was given as appendicitis; Stalin also concealed the real cause of death from his children.[375] Stalin's friends noted that he underwent a significant change following her suicide, becoming emotionally harder.[376]
Major crises: 1932–1939
Famine
Within the Soviet Union, there was widespread civic disgruntlement against Stalin's government.[377] Social unrest, previously restricted largely to the countryside, was increasingly evident in urban areas, prompting Stalin to ease on some of his economic policies in 1932.[378] In May 1932, he introduced a system of kolkhoz markets where peasants could trade their surplus produce.[379] At the same time, penal sanctions became more severe; at Stalin's instigation, in August 1932 a decree was introduced wherein the theft of even a handful of grain could be a capital offense.[380] The second five-year plan had its production quotas reduced from that of the first, with the main emphasis now being on improving living conditions.[378] It therefore emphasised the expansion of housing space and the production of consumer goods.[378] Like its predecessor, this plan was repeatedly amended to meet changing situations; there was for instance an increasing emphasis placed on armament production after Adolf Hitler became German chancellor in 1933.[381]
The Soviet Union experienced a major famine which peaked in the winter of 1932–33;[382] between five and seven million people died.[383] Worst affected were Ukraine and the North Caucasus, although the famine also affected Kazakhstan and several Russian provinces.[384] Historians have long debated whether Stalin's government had intended the famine to occur or not;[385] there are no known documents in which Stalin or his government explicitly called for starvation to be used against the population.[386] The 1931 and 1932 harvests had been poor ones because of weather conditions[387] and had followed several years in which lower productivity had resulted in a gradual decline in output.[383] Government policies—including the focus on rapid industrialisation, the socialisation of livestock, and the emphasis on sown areas over crop rotation—exacerbated the problem;[388] the state had also failed to build reserve grain stocks for such an emergency.[389] Stalin blamed the famine on hostile elements and sabotage within the peasantry;[390] his government provided small amounts of food to famine-struck rural areas, although this was wholly insufficient to deal with the levels of starvation.[391] The Soviet government believed that food supplies should be prioritized for the urban workforce;[392] for Stalin, the fate of Soviet industrialisation was far more important than the lives of the peasantry.[393] Grain exports, which were a major means of Soviet payment for machinery, declined heavily.[391] Stalin would not acknowledge that his policies had contributed to the famine,[380] the existence of which was kept secret from foreign observers.[394]
Ideological and foreign affairs
In 1935–36, Stalin oversaw a new constitution; its dramatic liberal features were designed as propaganda weapons, for all power rested in the hands of Stalin and his Politburo.[395] He declared that "socialism, which is the first phase of communism, has basically been achieved in this country".[395] In 1938, The History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks), colloquially known as the Short Course, was released;[396] Conquest later referred to it as the "central text of Stalinism".[397] A number of authorised Stalin biographies were also published,[398] although Stalin generally wanted to be portrayed as the embodiment of the Communist Party rather than have his life story explored.[399] During the later 1930s, Stalin placed "a few limits on the worship of his own greatness".[399] By 1938, Stalin's inner circle had gained a degree of stability, containing the personalities who would remain there until Stalin's death.[400]
Seeking improved international relations, in 1934 the Soviet Union secured membership of the League of Nations, of which it had previously been excluded.[401] Stalin initiated confidential communications with Hitler in October 1933, shortly after the latter came to power in Germany.[402] Stalin admired Hitler, particularly his manoeuvres to remove rivals within the Nazi Party in the Night of the Long Knives.[403] Stalin nevertheless recognised the threat posed by fascism and sought to establish better links with the liberal democracies of Western Europe;[404] in May 1935, the Soviets signed a treaty of mutual assistance with France and Czechoslovakia.[405] At the Communist International's 7th Congress, held in July–August 1935, the Soviet government encouraged Marxist-Leninists to unite with other leftists as part of a popular front against fascism.[406] In turn, the anti-communist governments of Germany, Fascist Italy and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936.[407]
When the Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936, the Soviets sent 648 aircraft and 407 tanks to the left-wing Republican faction; these were accompanied by 3,000 Soviet troops and 42,000 members of the International Brigades set up by the Communist International.[408] Stalin took a strong personal involvement in the Spanish situation.[409] Germany and Italy backed the Nationalist faction, which was ultimately victorious in March 1939.[410] With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in July 1937, the Soviet Union and China signed a non-aggression pact the following August.[411] Stalin aided the Chinese as the KMT and the Communists had suspended their civil war and formed the desired United Front.[412]
The Great Terror
Stalin often gave conflicting signals regarding state repression.[413] In May 1933, he released from prison many convicted of minor offenses, ordering the security services not to enact further mass arrests and deportations.[414] In September 1934, he launched a commission to investigate false imprisonments; that same month he called for the execution of workers at the Stalin Metallurgical Factory accused of spying for Japan.[413] This mixed approach began to change in December 1934, after prominent party member Sergey Kirov was murdered.[415] After the murder, Stalin became increasingly concerned by the threat of assassination, improved his personal security, and rarely went out in public.[416] State repression intensified after Kirov's death;[417] Stalin instigated this, reflecting his prioritisation of security above other considerations.[418] Stalin issued a decree establishing NKVD troikas which could mete out rulings without involving the courts.[419] In 1935, he ordered the NKVD to expel suspected counter-revolutionaries from urban areas;[381] in early 1935, over 11,000 were expelled from Leningrad.[381] In 1936, Nikolai Yezhov became head of the NKVD.[420]
Stalin orchestrated the arrest of many former opponents in the Communist Party as well as sitting members of the Central Committee: denounced as Western-backed mercenaries, many were imprisoned or exiled internally.[421] The first Moscow Trial took place in August 1936; Kamenev and Zinoviev were among those accused of plotting assassinations, found guilty in a show trial, and executed.[422] The second Moscow Show Trial took place in January 1937,[423] and the third in March 1938, in which Bukharin and Rykov were accused of involvement in the alleged Trotskyite-Zinovievite terrorist plot and sentenced to death.[424] By late 1937, all remnants of collective leadership were gone from the Politburo, which was controlled entirely by Stalin.[425] There were mass expulsions from the party,[426] with Stalin commanding foreign communist parties to also purge anti-Stalinist elements.[427]
Repressions further intensified in December 1936 and remained at a high level until November 1938, a period known as the Great Purge.[418] By the latter part of 1937, the purges had moved beyond the party and were affecting the wider population.[428] In July 1937, the Politburo ordered a purge of "anti-Soviet elements" in society, targeting anti-Stalin Bolsheviks, former Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries, priests, ex-White Army soldiers, and common criminals.[429] That month, Stalin and Yezhov signed Order No. 00447, listing 268,950 people for arrest, of whom 75,950 were executed.[430] He also initiated "national operations", the ethnic cleansing of non-Soviet ethnic groups—among them Poles, Germans, Latvians, Finns, Greeks, Koreans, and Chinese—through internal or external exile.[431] During these years, approximately 1.6 million people were arrested,[432] 700,000 were shot, and an unknown number died under NKVD torture.[432]
During the 1930s and 1940s, NKVD groups assassinated defectors and opponents abroad;[433] in August 1940, Trotsky was assassinated in Mexico, eliminating the last of Stalin's opponents among the former Party leadership.[434] In May, this was followed by the arrest of most members of the military Supreme Command and mass arrests throughout the military, often on fabricated charges.[435] These purges replaced most of the party's old guard with younger officials who did not remember a time before Stalin's leadership and who were regarded as more personally loyal to him.[436] Party functionaries readily carried out their commands and sought to ingratiate themselves with Stalin to avoid becoming the victim of the purge.[437] Such functionaries often carried out a greater number of arrests and executions than their quotas set by Stalin's central government.[438]
Stalin initiated all key decisions during the Terror, personally directing many of its operations and taking an interest in their implementation.[439] His motives in doing so have been much debated by historians.[432] His personal writings from the period were — according to Khlevniuk — "unusually convoluted and incoherent", filled with claims about enemies encircling him.[440] He was particularly concerned at the success that right-wing forces had in overthrowing the leftist Spanish government,[441] fearing a domestic fifth column in the event of future war with Japan and Germany.[442] The Great Terror ended when Yezhov was removed as the head of the NKVD, to be replaced by Lavrentiy Beria,[443] a man totally devoted to Stalin.[444] Yezhov was arrested in April 1939 and executed in 1940.[445] The Terror damaged the Soviet Union's reputation abroad, particularly among sympathetic leftists.[446] As it wound down, Stalin sought to deflect responsibility from himself,[447] blaming its "excesses" and "violations of law" on Yezhov.[448] According to historian James Harris, contemporary archival research shows that the motivation behind the purges was not Stalin attempting to establish his own personal dictatorship; evidence suggests he was committed to building the socialist state envisioned by Lenin. The real motivation for the terror, according to Harris, was an excessive fear of counterrevolution.[449]
World War II
Pact with Nazi Germany: 1939–1941
As a Marxist–Leninist, Stalin expected an inevitable conflict between competing capitalist powers; after Nazi Germany annexed Austria and then part of Czechoslovakia in 1938, Stalin recognised a war was looming.[450] He sought to maintain Soviet neutrality, hoping that a German war against France and Britain would lead to Soviet dominance in Europe.[451] Militarily, the Soviets also faced a threat from the east, with Soviet troops clashing with the expansionist Japanese in the latter part of the 1930s.[452] Stalin initiated a military build-up, with the Red Army more than doubling between January 1939 and June 1941, although in its haste to expand many of its officers were poorly trained.[453] Between 1940 and 1941 he also purged the military, leaving it with a severe shortage of trained officers when war broke out.[454]
As Britain and France seemed unwilling to commit to an alliance with the Soviet Union, Stalin saw a better deal with the Germans.[455] On 3 May 1939, Stalin replaced his western-oriented foreign minister Maxim Litvinov with Vyacheslav Molotov.[456] In May 1939, Germany began negotiations with the Soviets, proposing that Eastern Europe be divided between the two powers.[457] Stalin saw this as an opportunity both for territorial expansion and temporary peace with Germany.[458] In August 1939, the Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact with Germany, a non-aggression pact negotiated by Molotov and German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.[459] A week later, Germany invaded Poland, sparking the UK and France to declare war on Germany.[460] On 17 September, the Red Army entered eastern Poland, officially to restore order amid the collapse of the Polish state.[461] On 28 September, Germany and the Soviet Union exchanged some of their newly conquered territories; Germany gained the linguistically Polish-dominated areas of Lublin Province and part of Warsaw Province while the Soviets gained Lithuania.[462] A German–Soviet Frontier Treaty was signed shortly after, in Stalin's presence.[463] The two states continued trading, undermining the British blockade of Germany.[464]
The Soviets further demanded parts of eastern Finland, but the Finnish government refused. The Soviets invaded Finland in November 1939, yet despite numerical inferiority, the Finns kept the Red Army at bay.[465] International opinion backed Finland, with the Soviets being expelled from the League of Nations.[466] Embarrassed by their inability to defeat the Finns, the Soviets signed an interim peace treaty, in which they received territorial concessions from Finland.[467] In June 1940, the Red Army occupied the Baltic states, which were forcibly merged into the Soviet Union in August;[468] they also invaded and annexed Bessarabia and northern Bukovina, parts of Romania.[469] The Soviets sought to forestall dissent in these new East European territories with mass repressions.[470] One of the most noted instances was the Katyn massacre of April and May 1940, in which around 22,000 members of the Polish armed forces, police, and intelligentsia were executed.[471]
The speed of the German victory over and occupation of France in mid-1940 took Stalin by surprise.[472] He increasingly focused on appeasement with the Germans to delay any conflict with them.[473] After the Tripartite Pact was signed by Axis Powers Germany, Japan, and Italy in October 1940, Stalin proposed that the USSR also join the Axis alliance.[474] To demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany, in April 1941 the Soviets signed a neutrality pact with Japan.[475] Although de facto head of government for a decade and a half, Stalin concluded that relations with Germany had deteriorated to such an extent that he needed to deal with the problem as de jure head of government as well: on 6 May, Stalin replaced Molotov as Premier of the Soviet Union.[476]
German invasion: 1941–1942
In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, initiating the war on the Eastern Front.[477] Although intelligence agencies had repeatedly warned him of Germany's intentions, Stalin was taken by surprise.[478] He formed a State Defense Committee, which he headed as Supreme Commander,[479] as well as a military Supreme Command (Stavka),[480] with Georgy Zhukov as its Chief of Staff.[481] The German tactic of blitzkrieg was initially highly effective; the Soviet air force in the western borderlands was destroyed within two days.[482] The German Wehrmacht pushed deep into Soviet territory;[483] soon, Ukraine, Byelorussia, and the Baltic states were under German occupation, and Leningrad was under siege;[484] and Soviet refugees were flooding into Moscow and surrounding cities.[485] By July, Germany's Luftwaffe was bombing Moscow,[484] and by October the Wehrmacht was amassing for a full assault on the capital. Plans were made for the Soviet government to evacuate to Kuibyshev, although Stalin decided to remain in Moscow, believing his flight would damage troop morale.[486] The German advance on Moscow was halted after two months of battle in increasingly harsh weather conditions.[487]
Going against the advice of Zhukov and other generals, Stalin emphasised attack over defence.[488] In June 1941, he ordered a scorched earth policy of destroying infrastructure and food supplies before the Germans could seize them,[489] also commanding the NKVD to kill around 100,000 political prisoners in areas the Wehrmacht approached.[490] He purged the military command; several high-ranking figures were demoted or reassigned and others were arrested and executed.[491] With Order No. 270, Stalin commanded soldiers risking capture to fight to the death describing the captured as traitors;[492] among those taken as a prisoner of war by the Germans was Stalin's son Yakov, who died in their custody.[493] Stalin issued Order No. 227 in July 1942, which directed that those retreating unauthorised would be placed in "penal battalions" used as cannon fodder on the front lines.[494] Amid the fighting, both the German and Soviet armies disregarded the law of war set forth in the Geneva Conventions;[495] the Soviets heavily publicised Nazi massacres of communists, Jews, and Romani.[496] Stalin exploited Nazi anti-Semitism, and in April 1942 he sponsored the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee (JAC) to garner Jewish and foreign support for the Soviet war effort.[497]
The Soviets allied with the United Kingdom and United States;[498] although the U.S. joined the war against Germany in 1941, little direct American assistance reached the Soviets until late 1942.[495] Responding to the invasion, the Soviets intensified their industrial enterprises in central Russia, focusing almost entirely on production for the military.[499] They achieved high levels of industrial productivity, outstripping that of Germany.[496] During the war, Stalin was more tolerant of the Russian Orthodox Church, allowing it to resume some of its activities and meeting with Patriarch Sergius in September 1943.[500] He also permitted a wider range of cultural expression, notably permitting formerly suppressed writers and artists like Anna Akhmatova and Dmitri Shostakovich to disperse their work more widely.[501] The Internationale was dropped as the country's national anthem, to be replaced with a more patriotic song.[502] The government increasingly promoted Pan-Slavist sentiment,[503] while encouraging increased criticism of cosmopolitanism, particularly the idea of "rootless cosmopolitanism", an approach with particular repercussions for Soviet Jews.[504] Comintern was dissolved in 1943,[505] and Stalin encouraged foreign Marxist–Leninist parties to emphasise nationalism over internationalism to broaden their domestic appeal.[503]
In April 1942, Stalin overrode Stavka by ordering the Soviets' first serious counter-attack, an attempt to seize German-held Kharkov in eastern Ukraine. This attack proved unsuccessful.[506] That year, Hitler shifted his primary goal from an overall victory on the Eastern Front, to the goal of securing the oil fields in the southern Soviet Union crucial to a long-term German war effort.[507] While Red Army generals saw evidence that Hitler would shift efforts south, Stalin considered this to be a flanking move in a renewed effort to take Moscow.[508] In June 1942, the German Army began a major offensive in Southern Russia, threatening Stalingrad; Stalin ordered the Red Army to hold the city at all costs.[509] This resulted in the protracted Battle of Stalingrad.[510] In December 1942, he placed Konstantin Rokossovski in charge of holding the city.[511] In February 1943, the German troops attacking Stalingrad surrendered.[512] The Soviet victory there marked a major turning point in the war;[513] in commemoration, Stalin declared himself Marshal of the Soviet Union.[514]
Soviet counter-attack: 1942–1945
By November 1942, the Soviets had begun to repulse the important German strategic southern campaign and, although there were 2.5 million Soviet casualties in that effort, it permitted the Soviets to take the offensive for most of the rest of the war on the Eastern Front.[515] Germany attempted an encirclement attack at Kursk, which was successfully repulsed by the Soviets.[516] By the end of 1943, the Soviets occupied half of the territory taken by the Germans from 1941 to 1942.[517] Soviet military industrial output also had increased substantially from late 1941 to early 1943 after Stalin had moved factories well to the east of the front, safe from German invasion and aerial assault.[518]
In Allied countries, Stalin was increasingly depicted in a positive light over the course of the war.[519] In 1941, the London Philharmonic Orchestra performed a concert to celebrate his birthday,[520] and in 1942, Time magazine named him "Man of the Year".[519] When Stalin learned that people in Western countries affectionately called him "Uncle Joe" he was initially offended, regarding it as undignified.[521] There remained mutual suspicions between Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who were together known as the "Big Three".[522] Churchill flew to Moscow to visit Stalin in August 1942 and again in October 1944.[523] Stalin scarcely left Moscow throughout the war,[524] with Roosevelt and Churchill frustrated with his reluctance to travel to meet them.[525]
In November 1943, Stalin met with Churchill and Roosevelt in Tehran, a location of Stalin's choosing.[526] There, Stalin and Roosevelt got on well, with both desiring the post-war dismantling of the British Empire.[527] At Tehran, the trio agreed that to prevent Germany rising to military prowess yet again, the German state should be broken up.[528] Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed to Stalin's demand that the German city of Königsberg be declared Soviet territory.[528] Stalin was impatient for the UK and U.S. to open up a Western Front to take the pressure off of the East; they eventually did so in mid-1944.[529] Stalin insisted that, after the war, the Soviet Union should incorporate the portions of Poland it occupied pursuant to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, which Churchill opposed.[530] Discussing the fate of the Balkans, later in 1944 Churchill agreed to Stalin's suggestion that after the war, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, and Yugoslavia would come under the Soviet sphere of influence while Greece would come under that of the West.[531]
In 1944, the Soviet Union made significant advances across Eastern Europe toward Germany,[532] including Operation Bagration, a massive offensive in the Byelorussian SSR against the German Army Group Centre.[533] In 1944 the German armies were pushed out of the Baltic states (with the exception of the Ostland), which were then re-annexed into the Soviet Union.[534] As the Red Army reconquered the Caucasus and Crimea, various ethnic groups living in the region—the Kalmyks, Chechens, Ingushi, Karachai, Balkars, and Crimean Tatars—were accused of having collaborated with the Germans. Using the idea of collective responsibility as a basis, Stalin's government abolished their autonomous republics and between late 1943 and 1944 deported the majority of their populations to Central Asia and Siberia.[535] Over one million people were deported as a result of the policy.[536]
In February 1945, the three leaders met at the Yalta Conference.[537] Roosevelt and Churchill conceded to Stalin's demand that Germany pay the Soviet Union 20 billion dollars in reparations, and that his country be permitted to annex Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in exchange for entering the war against Japan.[538] An agreement was also made that a post-war Polish government should be a coalition consisting of both communist and conservative elements.[539] Privately, Stalin sought to ensure that Poland would come fully under Soviet influence.[540] The Red Army withheld assistance to Polish resistance fighters battling the Germans in the Warsaw Uprising, with Stalin believing that any victorious Polish militants could interfere with his aspirations to dominate Poland through a future Marxist government.[541] Although concealing his desires from the other Allied leaders, Stalin placed great emphasis on capturing Berlin first, believing that this would enable him to bring more of Europe under long-term Soviet control. Churchill was concerned that this was the case and unsuccessfully tried to convince the U.S. that the Western Allies should pursue the same goal.[542]
Victory: 1945
In April 1945, the Red Army seized Berlin, Hitler committed suicide, and Germany surrendered in May.[543] Stalin had wanted Hitler captured alive; he had his remains brought to Moscow to prevent them becoming a relic for Nazi sympathisers.[544] As the Red Army had conquered German territory, they discovered the extermination camps that the Nazi administration had run.[542] Many Soviet soldiers engaged in looting, pillaging, and rape, both in Germany and parts of Eastern Europe.[545] Stalin refused to punish the offenders.[542] After receiving a complaint about this from Yugoslav communist Milovan Djilas, Stalin asked how after experiencing the traumas of war a soldier could "react normally? And what is so awful in his having fun with a woman, after such horrors?"[546]
With Germany defeated, Stalin switched focus to the war with Japan, transferring half a million troops to the Far East.[547] Stalin was pressed by his allies to enter the war and wanted to cement the Soviet Union's strategic position in Asia.[548] On 8 August, in between the U.S. atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet army invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria and defeated the Kwantung Army.[549] These events led to the Japanese surrender and the war's end.[550] Soviet forces continued to expand until they occupied all their territorial concessions, but the U.S. rebuffed Stalin's desire for the Red Army to take a role in the Allied occupation of Japan.[551]
Stalin attended the Potsdam Conference in July–August 1945, alongside his new British and U.S. counterparts, Prime Minister Clement Attlee and President Harry Truman.[552] At the conference, Stalin repeated previous promises to Churchill that he would refrain from a "Sovietization" of Eastern Europe.[553] Stalin pushed for reparations from Germany without regard to the base minimum supply for German citizens' survival, which worried Truman and Churchill who thought that Germany would become a financial burden for Western powers.[554] He also pushed for "war booty", which would permit the Soviet Union to directly seize property from conquered nations without quantitative or qualitative limitation, and a clause was added permitting this to occur with some limitations.[554] Germany was divided into four zones: Soviet, U.S., British, and French, with Berlin itself—located within the Soviet area—also subdivided thusly.[555]
Post-war era
Post-war reconstruction and famine: 1945–1947
After the war, Stalin was—according to Service—at the "apex of his career".[556] Within the Soviet Union he was widely regarded as the embodiment of victory and patriotism.[557] His armies controlled Central and Eastern Europe up to the River Elbe.[556] In June 1945, Stalin adopted the title of Generalissimus,[558] and stood atop Lenin's Mausoleum to watch a celebratory parade led by Zhukov through Red Square.[559] At a banquet held for army commanders, he described the Russian people as "the outstanding nation" and "leading force" within the Soviet Union, the first time that he had unequivocally endorsed the Russians over other Soviet nationalities.[560] In 1946, the state published Stalin's Collected Works.[561] In 1947, it brought out a second edition of his official biography, which eulogised him to a greater extent than its predecessor.[562] He was quoted in Pravda on a daily basis and pictures of him remained pervasive on the walls of workplaces and homes.[563]
Despite his strengthened international position, Stalin was cautious about internal dissent and desire for change among the population.[564] He was also concerned about his returning armies, who had been exposed to a wide range of consumer goods in Germany, much of which they had looted and brought back with them. In this he recalled the 1825 Decembrist Revolt by Russian soldiers returning from having defeated France in the Napoleonic Wars.[565] He ensured that returning Soviet prisoners of war went through "filtration" camps as they arrived in the Soviet Union, in which 2,775,700 were interrogated to determine if they were traitors. About half were then imprisoned in labour camps.[566] In the Baltic states, where there was much opposition to Soviet rule, de-kulakisation and de-clericalisation programs were initiated, resulting in 142,000 deportations between 1945 and 1949.[534] The Gulag system of labour camps was expanded further. By January 1953, three percent of the Soviet population was imprisoned or in internal exile, with 2.8 million in "special settlements" in isolated areas and another 2.5 million in camps, penal colonies, and prisons.[567]
The NKVD were ordered to catalogue the scale of destruction during the war.[568] It was established that 1,710 Soviet towns and 70,000 villages had been destroyed.[569] The NKVD recorded that between 26 and 27 million Soviet citizens had been killed, with millions more being wounded, malnourished, or orphaned.[570] In the war's aftermath, some of Stalin's associates suggested modifications to government policy.[571] Post-war Soviet society was more tolerant than its pre-war phase in various respects. Stalin allowed the Russian Orthodox Church to retain the churches it had opened during the war.[572] Academia and the arts were also allowed greater freedom than they had prior to 1941.[573] Recognising the need for drastic steps to be taken to combat inflation and promote economic regeneration, in December 1947 Stalin's government devalued the ruble and abolished the ration-book system.[574] Capital punishment was abolished in 1947 but reinstalled in 1950.[575]
Stalin's health was deteriorating, and heart problems forced a two-month vacation in the latter part of 1945.[576] He grew increasingly concerned that senior political and military figures might try to oust him; he prevented any of them from becoming powerful enough to rival him and had their apartments bugged with listening devices.[577] He demoted Molotov,[578] and increasingly favoured Beria and Malenkov for key positions.[579] In 1949, he brought Nikita Khrushchev from Ukraine to Moscow, appointing him a Central Committee secretary and the head of the city's party branch.[580] In the Leningrad Affair, the city's leadership was purged amid accusations of treachery; executions of many of the accused took place in 1950.[581]
In the post-war period there were often food shortages in Soviet cities,[582] and the USSR experienced a major famine from 1946 to 1947.[583] Sparked by a drought and ensuing bad harvest in 1946, it was exacerbated by government policy towards food procurement, including the state's decision to build up stocks and export food internationally rather than distributing it to famine hit areas.[584] Current estimates indicate that between one million and 1.5 million people died from malnutrition or disease as a result.[585] While agricultural production stagnated, Stalin focused on a series of major infrastructure projects, including the construction of hydroelectric plants, canals, and railway lines running to the polar north.[586] Much of this was constructed by prison labour.[586]
Cold War policy: 1947–1950
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the British Empire declined, leaving the U.S. and USSR as the dominant world powers.[587] Tensions among these former Allies grew,[557] resulting in the Cold War.[588] Although Stalin publicly described the British and U.S. governments as aggressive, he thought it unlikely that a war with them would be imminent, believing that several decades of peace was likely.[589] He nevertheless secretly intensified Soviet research into nuclear weaponry, intent on creating an atom bomb.[556] Still, Stalin foresaw the undesirability of a nuclear conflict, saying in 1949 that "atomic weapons can hardly be used without spelling the end of the world."[590] He personally took a keen interest in the development of the weapon.[591] In August 1949, the bomb was successfully tested in the deserts outside Semipalatinsk in Kazakhstan.[592] Stalin also initiated a new military build-up; the Soviet army was expanded from 2.9 million soldiers, as it stood in 1949, to 5.8 million by 1953.[593]
The US began pushing its interests on every continent, acquiring air force bases in Africa and Asia and ensuring pro-U.S. regimes took power across Latin America.[594] It launched the Marshall Plan in June 1947, with which it sought to undermine Soviet hegemony in eastern Europe. The US also offered financial assistance as part of the Marshall Plan on the condition that they opened their markets to trade, aware that the Soviets would never agree.[595] The Allies demanded that Stalin withdraw the Red Army from northern Iran. He initially refused, leading to an international crisis in 1946, but one year later Stalin finally relented and moved the Soviet troops out.[596] Stalin also tried to maximise Soviet influence on the world stage, unsuccessfully pushing for Libya—recently liberated from Italian occupation—to become a Soviet protectorate.[597] He sent Molotov as his representative to San Francisco to take part in negotiations to form the United Nations, insisting that the Soviets have a place on the Security Council.[588] In April 1949, the Western powers established the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), an international military alliance of capitalist countries.[598] Within Western countries, Stalin was increasingly portrayed as the "most evil dictator alive" and compared to Hitler.[599]
In 1948, Stalin edited and rewrote sections of Falsifiers of History, published as a series of Pravda articles in February 1948 and then in book form. Written in response to public revelations of the 1939 Soviet alliance with Germany, it focused on blaming Western powers for the war.[600] He erroneously claimed that the initial German advance in the early part of the war was not a result of Soviet military weakness, but rather a deliberate Soviet strategic retreat.[601] In 1949, celebrations took place to mark Stalin's seventieth birthday (although he was 71 at the time,) at which Stalin attended an event in the Bolshoi Theatre alongside Marxist–Leninist leaders from across Europe and Asia.[602]
Eastern Bloc
After the war, Stalin sought to retain Soviet dominance across Eastern Europe while expanding its influence in Asia.[534] Cautiously regarding the responses from the Western Allies, Stalin avoided immediately installing Communist Party governments across Eastern Europe, instead initially ensuring that Marxist-Leninists were placed in coalition ministries.[597] In contrast to his approach to the Baltic states, he rejected the proposal of merging the new communist states into the Soviet Union, rather recognising them as independent nation-states.[603] He was faced with the problem that there were few Marxists left in Eastern Europe, with most having been killed by the Nazis.[604] He demanded that war reparations be paid by Germany and its Axis allies Hungary, Romania, and the Slovak Republic.[557] Aware that these countries had been pushed toward socialism through invasion rather than by proletarian revolution, Stalin referred to them not as "dictatorships of the proletariat" but as "people's democracies", suggesting that in these countries there was a pro-socialist alliance combining the proletariat, peasantry, and lower middle-class.[605]
Churchill observed that an "Iron Curtain" had been drawn across Europe, separating the east from the west.[606] In September 1947, a meeting of East European communist leaders was held in Szklarska Poręba, Poland, from which was formed Cominform to co-ordinate the Communist Parties across Eastern Europe and also in France and Italy.[607] Stalin did not personally attend the meeting, sending Zhdanov in his place.[555] Various East European communists also visited Stalin in Moscow.[608] There, he offered advice on their ideas; for instance he cautioned against the Yugoslav idea for a Balkan federation incorporating Bulgaria and Albania.[608] Stalin had a particularly strained relationship with Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito due to the latter's continued calls for Balkan federation and for Soviet aid for the communist forces in the ongoing Greek Civil War.[609] In March 1948, Stalin launched an anti-Tito campaign, accusing the Yugoslav communists of adventurism and deviating from Marxist–Leninist doctrine.[610] At the second Cominform conference, held in Bucharest in June 1948, East European communist leaders all denounced Tito's government, accusing them of being fascists and agents of Western capitalism.[611] Stalin ordered several assassination attempts on Tito's life and contemplated invading Yugoslavia.[612]
Stalin suggested that a unified, but demilitarised, German state be established, hoping that it would either come under Soviet influence or remain neutral.[613] When the US and UK remained opposed to this, Stalin sought to force their hand by blockading Berlin in June 1948.[614] He gambled that the others would not risk war, but they airlifted supplies into West Berlin until May 1949, when Stalin relented and ended the blockade.[598] In September 1949 the Western powers transformed Western Germany into an independent Federal Republic of Germany; in response the Soviets formed East Germany into the German Democratic Republic in October.[613] In accordance with their earlier agreements, the Western powers expected Poland to become an independent state with free democratic elections.[615] In Poland, the Soviets merged various socialist parties into the Polish United Workers' Party, and vote rigging was used to ensure that it secured office.[610] The 1947 Hungarian elections were also rigged, with the Hungarian Working People's Party taking control.[610] In Czechoslovakia, where the communists did have a level of popular support, they were elected the largest party in 1946.[616] Monarchy was abolished in Bulgaria and Romania.[617] Across Eastern Europe, the Soviet model was enforced, with a termination of political pluralism, agricultural collectivisation, and investment in heavy industry.[611] It was aimed for economic autarky within the Eastern Bloc.[611]
Asia
In October 1949, Chinese Communist leader Mao Zedong took power in China.[618] With this accomplished, Marxist governments now controlled a third of the world's land mass.[619] Privately, Stalin revealed that he had underestimated the Chinese Communists and their ability to win the civil war, instead encouraging them to make another peace with the KMT.[620] In December 1949, Mao visited Stalin. Initially Stalin refused to repeal the Sino-Soviet Treaty of 1945, which significantly benefited the Soviet Union over China, although in January 1950 he relented and agreed to sign a new treaty between the two countries.[621] Stalin was concerned that Mao might follow Tito's example by pursuing a course independent of Soviet influence, and made it known that if displeased he would withdraw assistance from China; the Chinese desperately needed said assistance after decades of civil war.[622]
At the end of the Second World War, the Soviet Union and the United States divided up the Korean Peninsula, formerly a Japanese colonial possession, along the 38th parallel, setting up a communist government in the north and a pro-Western government in the south.[623] North Korean leader Kim Il-sung visited Stalin in March 1949 and again in March 1950; he wanted to invade the south and although Stalin was initially reluctant to provide support, he eventually agreed by May 1950.[624] The North Korean Army launched the Korean War by invading the south in June 1950, making swift gains and capturing Seoul.[625] Both Stalin and Mao believed that a swift victory would ensue.[625] The U.S. went to the UN Security Council—which the Soviets were boycotting over its refusal to recognise Mao's government—and secured military support for the South Koreans. U.S. led forces pushed the North Koreans back.[626] Stalin wanted to avoid direct Soviet conflict with the U.S., convincing the Chinese to aid the North.[627]
The Soviet Union was one of the first nations to extend diplomatic recognition to the newly created state of Israel in 1948. When the Israeli ambassador Golda Meir arrived in the USSR, Stalin was angered by the Jewish crowds who gathered to greet her.[628] He was further angered by Israel's growing alliance with the U.S.[629] After Stalin fell out with Israel, he launched an anti-Jewish campaign within the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc.[605] In November 1948, he abolished the JAC,[630] and show trials took place for some of its members.[631] The Soviet press engaged in attacks on Zionism, Jewish culture, and "rootless cosmopolitanism",[632] with growing levels of anti-Semitism being expressed across Soviet society.[633] Stalin's increasing tolerance of anti-Semitism may have stemmed from his increasing Russian nationalism or from the recognition that anti-Semitism had proved a useful mobilising tool for Hitler and that he could do the same;[634] he may have increasingly viewed the Jewish people as a "counter-revolutionary" nation whose members were loyal to the U.S.[635] There were rumours, although they have never been substantiated, that Stalin was planning on deporting all Soviet Jews to the Jewish Autonomous Region in Birobidzhan, eastern Siberia.[636]
Final years: 1950–1953
In his later years, Stalin was in poor health.[637] He took increasingly long holidays; in 1950 and again in 1951 he spent almost five months vacationing at his Abkhazian dacha.[638] Stalin nevertheless mistrusted his doctors; in January 1952 he had one imprisoned after they suggested that he should retire to improve his health.[637] In September 1952, several Kremlin doctors were arrested for allegedly plotting to kill senior politicians in what came to be known as the Doctors' Plot; the majority of the accused were Jewish.[639] He instructed the arrested doctors to be tortured to ensure confession.[640] In November, the Slánský trial took place in Czechoslovakia as 13 senior Communist Party figures, 11 of them Jewish, were accused and convicted of being part of a vast Zionist-American conspiracy to subvert Eastern Bloc governments.[641] That same month, a much publicised trial of accused Jewish industrial wreckers took place in Ukraine.[642] In 1951, he initiated the Mingrelian affair, a purge of the Georgian branch of the Communist Party which resulted in over 11,000 deportations.[643]
From 1946 until his death, Stalin only gave three public speeches, two of which lasted only a few minutes.[644] The amount of written material that he produced also declined.[644] In 1950, Stalin issued the article "Marxism and Problems of Linguistics", which reflected his interest in questions of Russian nationhood.[645] In 1952, Stalin's last book, Economic Problems of Socialism in the USSR, was published. It sought to provide a guide to leading the country after his death.[646] In October 1952, Stalin gave an hour and a half speech at the Central Committee plenum.[647] There, he emphasised what he regarded as leadership qualities necessary in the future and highlighted the weaknesses of various potential successors, particularly Molotov and Mikoyan.[648] In 1952, he also eliminated the Politburo and replaced it with a larger version which he called the Presidium.[649]
Death, funeral and aftermath
On 1 March 1953, Stalin's staff found him semi-conscious on the bedroom floor of his Volynskoe dacha.[650] He had suffered a cerebral hemorrhage.[651] He was moved onto a couch and remained there for three days.[652] He was hand-fed using a spoon, given various medicines and injections, and leeches were applied to him.[651] Svetlana and Vasily were called to the dacha on 2 March; the latter was drunk and angrily shouted at the doctors, resulting in him being sent home.[653] Stalin died on 5 March 1953.[654] According to Svetlana, it had been "a difficult and terrible death".[655] An autopsy revealed that he had died of a cerebral hemorrhage and that he also suffered from severe damage to his cerebral arteries due to atherosclerosis.[656] It is conjectured that Stalin was murdered;[657] Beria has been suspected of murder, although no firm evidence has ever appeared.[651]
Stalin's death was announced on 6 March.[658] The body was embalmed,[659] and then placed on display in Moscow's House of Unions for three days.[660] Crowds were such that a crush killed about 100 people.[661] The funeral involved the body being laid to rest in Lenin's Mausoleum in Red Square on 9 March; hundreds of thousands attended.[662] That month featured a surge in arrests for "anti-Soviet agitation" as those celebrating Stalin's death came to police attention.[663] The Chinese government instituted a period of official mourning for Stalin's death.[664]
Stalin left no anointed successor nor a framework within which a transfer of power could take place.[665] The Central Committee met on the day of his death, with Malenkov, Beria, and Khrushchev emerging as the party's key figures.[666] The system of collective leadership was restored, and measures introduced to prevent any one member attaining autocratic domination again.[667] The collective leadership included the following eight senior members of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union listed according to the order of precedence presented formally on 5 March 1953: Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, Vyacheslav Molotov, Kliment Voroshilov, Nikita Khrushchev, Nikolai Bulganin, Lazar Kaganovich and Anastas Mikoyan.[668] Reforms to the Soviet system were immediately implemented.[669] Economic reform scaled back the mass construction projects, placed a new emphasis on house building, and eased the levels of taxation on the peasantry to stimulate production.[670] The new leaders sought rapprochement with Yugoslavia and a less hostile relationship with the U.S.,[671] pursuing a negotiated end to the Korean War in July 1953.[672] The doctors who had been imprisoned were released and the anti-Semitic purges ceased.[673] A mass amnesty for those imprisoned for non-political crimes was issued, halving the country's inmate population, while the state security and Gulag systems were reformed, with torture being banned in April 1953.[670]
Political ideology
Stalin claimed to have embraced Marxism at the age of fifteen,[674] and it served as the guiding philosophy throughout his adult life;[675] according to Kotkin, Stalin held "zealous Marxist convictions",[676] while Montefiore suggested that Marxism held a "quasi-religious" value for Stalin.[677] Although he never became a Georgian nationalist,[678] during his early life elements from Georgian nationalist thought blended with Marxism in his outlook.[679] The historian Alfred J. Rieber noted that he had been raised in "a society where rebellion was deeply rooted in folklore and popular rituals".[678] Stalin believed in the need to adapt Marxism to changing circumstances; in 1917, he declared that "there is dogmatic Marxism and there is creative Marxism. I stand on the ground of the latter".[680] Volkogonov believed that Stalin's Marxism was shaped by his "dogmatic turn of mind", suggesting that this had been instilled in the Soviet leader during his education in religious institutions.[681] According to scholar Robert Service, Stalin's "few innovations in ideology were crude, dubious developments of Marxism".[675] Some of these derived from political expediency rather than any sincere intellectual commitment;[675] Stalin would often turn to ideology post hoc to justify his decisions.[682] Stalin referred to himself as a praktik, meaning that he was more of a practical revolutionary than a theoretician.[683]
As a Marxist and an extreme anti-capitalist, Stalin believed in an inevitable "class war" between the world's proletariat and bourgeoise.[684] He believed that the working classes would prove successful in this struggle and would establish a dictatorship of the proletariat,[685] regarding the Soviet Union as an example of such a state.[686] He also believed that this proletarian state would need to introduce repressive measures against foreign and domestic "enemies" to ensure the full crushing of the propertied classes,[687] and thus the class war would intensify with the advance of socialism.[688] As a propaganda tool, the shaming of "enemies" explained all inadequate economic and political outcomes, the hardships endured by the populace, and military failures.[689] The new state would then be able to ensure that all citizens had access to work, food, shelter, healthcare, and education, with the wastefulness of capitalism eliminated by a new, standardised economic system.[690] According to Sandle, Stalin was "committed to the creation of a society that was industrialised, collectivised, centrally planned and technologically advanced."[691]
Stalin adhered to the Leninist variant of Marxism.[692] In his book, Foundations of Leninism, he stated that "Leninism is the Marxism of the epoch of imperialism and of the proletarian revolution".[693] He claimed to be a loyal Leninist,[694] although was—according to Service—"not a blindly obedient Leninist".[690] Stalin respected Lenin, but not uncritically,[695] and spoke out when he believed that Lenin was wrong.[690] During the period of his revolutionary activity, Stalin regarded some of Lenin's views and actions as being the self-indulgent activities of a spoiled émigré, deeming them counterproductive for those Bolshevik activists based within the Russian Empire itself.[696] After the October Revolution, they continued to have differences. Whereas Lenin believed that all countries across Europe and Asia would readily unite as a single state following proletariat revolution, Stalin argued that national pride would prevent this, and that different socialist states would have to be formed; in his view, a country like Germany would not readily submit to being part of a Russian-dominated federal state.[697] Stalin biographer Oleg Khlevniuk nevertheless believed that the pair developed a "strong bond" over the years,[698] while Kotkin suggested that Stalin's friendship with Lenin was "the single most important relationship in Stalin's life".[699] After Lenin's death, Stalin relied heavily on Lenin's writings—far more so than those of Marx and Engels—to guide him in the affairs of state.[700] Stalin adopted the Leninist view on the need for a revolutionary vanguard who could lead the proletariat rather than being led by them.[685] Leading this vanguard, he believed that the Soviet peoples needed a strong, central figure—akin to a Tsar—whom they could rally around.[701] In his words, "the people need a Tsar, whom they can worship and for whom they can live and work".[702] He read about, and admired, two Tsars in particular: Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great.[703] In the personality cult constructed around him, he was known as the vozhd, an equivalent to the Italian duce and German fuhrer.[704]
Stalinism was a development of Leninism,[705] and while Stalin avoided using the term "Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism", he allowed others to do so.[706] Following Lenin's death, Stalin contributed to the theoretical debates within the Communist Party, namely by developing the idea of "Socialism in One Country". This concept was intricately linked to factional struggles within the party, particularly against Trotsky.[707] He first developed the idea in December 1924 and elaborated upon in his writings of 1925–26.[708] Stalin's doctrine held that socialism could be completed in Russia but that its final victory there could not be guaranteed because of the threat from capitalist intervention. For this reason, he retained the Leninist view that world revolution was still a necessity to ensure the ultimate victory of socialism.[708] Although retaining the Marxist belief that the state would wither away as socialism transformed into pure communism, he believed that the Soviet state would remain until the final defeat of international capitalism.[709] This concept synthesised Marxist and Leninist ideas with nationalist ideals,[691] and served to discredit Trotsky—who promoted the idea of "permanent revolution"—by presenting the latter as a defeatist with little faith in Russian workers' abilities to construct socialism.[710]
Stalin viewed nations as contingent entities which were formed by capitalism and could merge into others.[711] Ultimately he believed that all nations would merge into a single, global human community,[711] and regarded all nations as inherently equal.[712] In his work, he stated that "the right of secession" should be offered to the ethnic-minorities of the Russian Empire, but that they should not be encouraged to take that option.[713] He was of the view that if they became fully autonomous, then they would end up being controlled by the most reactionary elements of their community; as an example he cited the largely illiterate Tatars, whom he claimed would end up dominated by their mullahs.[713] Stalin argued that the Jews possessed a "national character" but were not a "nation" and were thus unassimilable. He argued that Jewish nationalism, particularly Zionism, was hostile to socialism.[714] According to Khlevniuk, Stalin reconciled Marxism with great-power imperialism and therefore expansion of the empire makes him a worthy to the Russian tsars.[689] Service argued that Stalin's Marxism was imbued with a great deal of Russian nationalism.[675] According to Montefiore, Stalin's embrace of the Russian nation was pragmatic, as the Russians were the core of the population of the USSR; it was not a rejection of his Georgian origins.[715] Stalin's push for Soviet westward expansion into eastern Europe resulted in accusations of Russian imperialism.[716]
Personal life and characteristics
Stalin brutally, artfully, indefatigably built a personal dictatorship within the Bolshevik dictatorship. Then he launched and saw through a bloody socialist remaking of the entire former empire, presided over a victory in the greatest war in human history, and took the Soviet Union to the epicentre of global affairs. More than for any other historical figure, even Gandhi or Churchill, a biography of Stalin... eventually comes to approximate a history of the world.
Ethnically Georgian,[718] Stalin grew up speaking the Georgian language,[719] and did not begin learning Russian until the age of eight or nine.[720] He remained proud of his Georgian identity,[721] and throughout his life retained a heavy Georgian accent when speaking Russian.[722] According to Montefiore, despite Stalin's affinity for Russia and Russians, he remained profoundly Georgian in his lifestyle and personality.[723] Stalin's colleagues described him as "Asiatic", and he told a Japanese journalist that "I am not a European man, but an Asian, a Russified Georgian".[724] Service also noted that Stalin "would never be Russian", could not credibly pass as one, and never tried to pretend that he was.[725] Montefiore was of the view that "after 1917, [Stalin] became quadri-national: Georgian by nationality, Russian by loyalty, internationalist by ideology, Soviet by citizenship."[726]
Stalin had a soft voice,[727] and when speaking Russian did so slowly, carefully choosing his phrasing.[718] In private he used coarse language, although avoided doing so in public.[728] Described as a poor orator,[729] according to Volkogonov, Stalin's speaking style was "simple and clear, without flights of fancy, catchy phrases or platform histrionics".[730] He rarely spoke before large audiences, and preferred to express himself in written form.[731] His writing style was similar, being characterised by its simplicity, clarity, and conciseness.[732] Throughout his life, he used various nicknames and pseudonyms, including "Koba", "Soselo", and "Ivanov",[733] adopting "Stalin" in 1912; it was based on the Russian word for "steel" and has often been translated as "Man of Steel".[143]
In adulthood, Stalin measured 5 feet 4 inches (1.63 m) tall.[734] To appear taller, he wore stacked shoes, and stood on a small platform during parades.[735] His mustached face was pock-marked from smallpox during childhood; this was airbrushed from published photographs.[736] He was born with a webbed left foot, and his left arm had been permanently injured in childhood which left it shorter than his right and lacking in flexibility,[737] which was probably the result of being hit, at the age of 12, by a horse-drawn carriage.[738]
During his youth, Stalin cultivated a scruffy appearance in rejection of middle-class aesthetic values.[739] By 1907, he grew his hair long and often wore a beard; for clothing, he often wore a traditional Georgian chokha or a red satin shirt with a grey coat and black fedora.[740] From mid-1918 until his death he favoured military-style clothing, in particular long black boots, light-coloured collarless tunics, and a gun.[741] He was a lifelong smoker, who smoked both a pipe and cigarettes.[742] He had few material demands and lived plainly, with simple and inexpensive clothing and furniture;[743] his interest was in power rather than wealth.[744]
As Soviet leader, Stalin typically awoke around 11 am,[745] with lunch being served between 3 and 5 pm and dinner no earlier than 9 pm;[746] he then worked late into the evening.[747] He often dined with other Politburo members and their families.[748] As leader, he rarely left Moscow unless to go to one of his dachas;[749] he disliked travel,[750] and refused to travel by plane.[751] His choice of favoured holiday house changed over the years,[752] although he holidayed in southern parts of the USSR every year from 1925 to 1936 and again from 1945 to 1951.[753] Along with other senior figures, he had a dacha at Zubalova, 35 km outside Moscow,[754] although ceased using it after Nadezhda's 1932 suicide.[755] After 1932, he favoured holidays in Abkhazia, being a friend of its leader, Nestor Lakoba.[756] In 1934, his new Kuntsevo Dacha was built; 9 km from the Kremlin, it became his primary residence.[757] In 1935 he began using a new dacha provided for him by Lakoba at Novy Afon;[758] in 1936, he had the Kholodnaya Rechka dacha built on the Abkhazian coast, designed by Miron Merzhanov.[759]
Personality
Trotsky and several other Soviet figures promoted the idea that Stalin was a mediocrity.[760] This gained widespread acceptance outside the Soviet Union during his lifetime but was misleading.[761] According to biographer Montefiore, "it is clear from hostile and friendly witnesses alike that Stalin was always exceptional, even from childhood".[761] Stalin had a complex mind,[762] great self-control,[763] and an excellent memory.[764] He was a hard worker,[765] and displayed a keen desire to learn;[766] when in power, he scrutinised many details of Soviet life, from film scripts to architectural plans and military hardware.[767] According to Volkogonov, "Stalin's private life and working life were one and the same"; he did not take days off from political activities.[768]
Stalin could play different roles to different audiences,[769] and was adept at deception, often deceiving others as to his true motives and aims.[770] Several historians have seen it appropriate to follow Lazar Kaganovich's description of there being "several Stalins" as a means of understanding his multi-faceted personality.[771] He was a good organiser,[772] with a strategic mind,[773] and judged others according to their inner strength, practicality, and cleverness.[774] He acknowledged that he could be rude and insulting,[775] but he rarely raised his voice in anger;[776] as his health deteriorated in later life he became increasingly unpredictable and bad tempered.[777] Despite his tough-talking attitude, he could be very charming;[778] when relaxed, he cracked jokes and mimicked others.[766] Montefiore suggested that this charm was "the foundation of Stalin's power in the Party".[779]
Stalin was ruthless,[780] temperamentally cruel,[781] and had a propensity for violence high even among the Bolsheviks.[776] He lacked compassion,[782] something Volkogonov suggested might have been accentuated by his many years in prison and exile,[783] although he was capable of acts of kindness to strangers, even amid the Great Terror.[784] He was capable of self-righteous indignation,[785] and was resentful,[786] and vindictive,[787] holding on to grudges for many years.[788] By the 1920s, he was also suspicious and conspiratorial, prone to believing that people were plotting against him and that there were vast international conspiracies behind acts of dissent.[789] He never attended torture sessions or executions,[790] although Service thought Stalin "derived deep satisfaction" from degrading and humiliating people and enjoyed keeping even close associates in a state of "unrelieved fear".[716] Montefiore thought Stalin's brutality marked him out as a "natural extremist";[791] Service suggested he had tendencies toward a paranoid and sociopathic personality disorder.[762] Other historians linked his brutality not to any personality trait, but to his unwavering commitment to the survival of the Soviet Union and the international Marxist–Leninist cause.[792]
It is hard for me to reconcile the courtesy and consideration he showed me personally with the ghastly cruelty of his wholesale liquidations. Others, who did not know him personally, see only the tyrant in Stalin. I saw the other side as well – his high intelligence, that fantastic grasp of detail, his shrewdness and his surprising human sensitivity that he was capable of showing, at least in the war years. I found him better informed than Roosevelt, more realistic than Churchill, in some ways the most effective of the war leaders. [...] I must confess that for me Stalin remains the most inscrutable and contradictory character I have known – and leave the final word to the judgment of history.
— U.S. ambassador W. Averell Harriman[793]
Keenly interested in the arts,[794] Stalin admired artistic talent.[795] He protected several Soviet writers, such as Mikhail Bulgakov, even when their work was labelled harmful to his regime.[796] He enjoyed music,[797] owning around 2,700 records,[798] and frequently attending the Bolshoi Theatre during the 1930s and 1940s.[799] His taste in music and theatre was conservative, favouring classical drama, opera, and ballet over what he dismissed as experimental "formalism".[720] He also favoured classical forms in the visual arts, disliking avant-garde styles like cubism and futurism.[800] He was a voracious reader, with a library of over 20,000 books.[801] Little of this was fiction,[802] although he could cite passages from Alexander Pushkin, Nikolay Nekrasov, and Walt Whitman by heart.[795] He favoured historical studies, keeping up with debates in the study of Russian, Mesopotamian, ancient Roman, and Byzantine history.[644] An autodidact,[803] he claimed to read as many as 500 pages a day,[804] with Montefiore regarding him as an intellectual.[805] Stalin also enjoyed watching films late at night at cinemas installed in the Kremlin and his dachas.[806] He favoured the Western genre;[807] his favourite film was the 1938 picture Volga Volga.[808]
Stalin was a keen and accomplished billiards player,[809] and collected watches.[810] He also enjoyed practical jokes; he for instance would place a tomato on the seat of Politburo members and wait for them to sit on it.[811] When at social events, he encouraged singing,[812] as well as alcohol consumption; he hoped that others would drunkenly reveal their secrets to him.[813] As an infant, Stalin displayed a love of flowers,[814] and later in life he became a keen gardener.[814] His Volynskoe suburb had a 20-hectare (50-acre) park, with Stalin devoting much attention to its agricultural activities.[815]
Stalin publicly condemned anti-Semitism,[816] although he was repeatedly accused of it.[817] People who knew him, such as Khrushchev, suggested he long harbored negative sentiments toward Jews,[818] and anti-Semitic trends in his policies were further fueled by Stalin's struggle against Trotsky.[819] After Stalin's death, Khrushchev claimed that Stalin encouraged him to incite anti-Semitism in Ukraine, allegedly telling him that "the good workers at the factory should be given clubs so they can beat the hell out of those Jews."[820] In 1946, Stalin allegedly said privately that "every Jew is a potential spy."[821] Conquest stated that although Stalin had Jewish associates, he promoted anti-Semitism.[822] Service cautioned that there was "no irrefutable evidence" of anti-Semitism in Stalin's published work, although his private statements and public actions were "undeniably reminiscent of crude antagonism towards Jews";[823] he added that throughout Stalin's lifetime, the Georgian "would be the friend, associate or leader of countless individual Jews".[824] According to Beria, Stalin had affairs with several Jewish women.[825]
Relationships and family
Friendship was important to Stalin,[826] and he used it to gain and maintain power.[827] Kotkin observed that Stalin "generally gravitated to people like himself: parvenu intelligentsia of humble background".[828] He gave nicknames to his favourites, for instance referring to Yezhov as "my blackberry".[829] Stalin was sociable and enjoyed a joke.[830] According to Montefiore, Stalin's friendships "meandered between love, admiration, and venomous jealousy".[831] While head of the Soviet Union he remained in contact with many of his old friends in Georgia, sending them letters and gifts of money.[832]
According to Montefiore, in his early life Stalin "rarely seems to have been without a girlfriend".[833] He was sexually promiscuous, although rarely talked about his sex life.[834] Montefiore noted that Stalin's favoured types were "young, malleable teenagers or buxom peasant women",[834] who would be supportive and unchallenging toward him.[835] According to Service, Stalin "regarded women as a resource for sexual gratification and domestic comfort".[836] Stalin married twice and had several offspring.[837]
Stalin married his first wife, Ekaterina Svanidze, in 1906. According to Montefiore, theirs was "a true love match";[838] Volkogonov suggested that she was "probably the one human being he had really loved".[839] When she died, Stalin said: "This creature softened my heart of stone."[840] They had a son, Yakov, who often frustrated and annoyed Stalin.[841] Yakov had a daughter, Galina, before fighting for the Red Army in the Second World War. He was captured by the German Army and then committed suicide.[842]
Stalin's second wife was Nadezhda Alliluyeva; theirs was not an easy relationship, and they often fought.[843] They had two biological children—a son, Vasily, and a daughter, Svetlana—and adopted another son, Artyom Sergeev, in 1921.[844] During his marriage to Nadezhda, Stalin had affairs with many other women, most of whom were fellow revolutionaries or their wives.[845] Nadezdha suspected that this was the case,[846] and committed suicide in 1932.[847] Stalin regarded Vasily as spoiled and often chastised his behaviour; as Stalin's son, Vasily nevertheless was swiftly promoted through the ranks of the Red Army and allowed a lavish lifestyle.[848] Conversely, Stalin had an affectionate relationship with Svetlana during her childhood,[849] and was also very fond of Artyom.[844] In later life, he disapproved of Svetlana's various suitors and husbands, putting a strain on his relationship with her.[850] After the Second World War, he made little time for his children and his family played a decreasingly important role in his life.[851] After Stalin's death, Svetlana changed her surname from Stalin to Allilueva,[671] and defected to the U.S.[852]
After Nadezdha's death, Stalin became increasingly close to her sister-in-law Zhenya Alliluyeva;[853] Montefiore believed that they were probably lovers.[854] There are unproven rumours that from 1934 onward he had a relationship with his housekeeper Valentina Istomina.[855] Stalin had at least two illegitimate children,[856] although he never recognised them as being his.[857] One of them, Konstantin Kuzakov, later taught philosophy at the Leningrad Military Mechanical Institute, but never met his father.[858] The other, Alexander, was the son of Lidia Pereprygia; he was raised as the son of a peasant fisherman and the Soviet authorities made him swear never to reveal that Stalin was his biological father.[859]
Legacy
The historian Robert Conquest stated that Stalin perhaps "determined the course of the twentieth century" more than any other individual.[860] Biographers like Service and Volkogonov have considered him an outstanding and exceptional politician;[861] Montefiore labelled Stalin as "that rare combination: both 'intellectual' and killer", a man who was "the ultimate politician" and "the most elusive and fascinating of the twentieth-century titans".[862] According to historian Kevin McDermott, interpretations of Stalin range from "the sycophantic and adulatory to the vitriolic and condemnatory."[863] For most Westerners and anti-communist Russians, he is viewed overwhelmingly negatively as a mass murderer;[863] for significant numbers of Russians and Georgians, he is regarded as a great statesman and state-builder.[863]
Stalin strengthened and stabilised the Soviet Union.[864] Service suggested that the country might have collapsed long before 1991 without Stalin.[864] In under three decades, Stalin transformed the Soviet Union into a major industrial world power,[865] one which could "claim impressive achievements" in terms of urbanisation, military strength, education and Soviet pride.[866] Under his rule, the average Soviet life expectancy grew due to improved living conditions, nutrition and medical care[867] as mortality rates also declined.[868] Although millions of Soviet citizens despised him, support for Stalin was nevertheless widespread throughout Soviet society.[866] Stalin's necessity for Soviet Union's economic development has been questioned, with it being argued that Stalin's policies from 1928 on may have only been a limiting factor.[869]
Stalin's Soviet Union has been characterised as a totalitarian state,[870] with Stalin its authoritarian leader.[871] Various biographers have described him as a dictator,[872] an autocrat,[873] or accused him of practicing Caesarism.[874] Montefiore argued that while Stalin initially ruled as part of a Communist Party oligarchy, the Soviet government transformed from this oligarchy into a personal dictatorship in 1934,[875] with Stalin only becoming "absolute dictator" between March and June 1937, when senior military and NKVD figures were eliminated.[876] According to Kotkin, Stalin "built a personal dictatorship within the Bolshevik dictatorship."[717] In both the Soviet Union and elsewhere he came to be portrayed as an "Oriental despot".[877] Dmitri Volkogonov characterised him as "one of the most powerful figures in human history."[878] McDermott stated that Stalin had "concentrated unprecedented political authority in his hands."[879] Service stated that Stalin "had come closer to personal despotism than almost any monarch in history" by the late 1930s.[880]
McDermott nevertheless cautioned against "over-simplistic stereotypes"—promoted in the fiction of writers like Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Vasily Grossman, and Anatoly Rybakov—that portrayed Stalin as an omnipotent and omnipresent tyrant who controlled every aspect of Soviet life through repression and totalitarianism.[881] Service similarly warned of the portrayal of Stalin as an "unimpeded despot", noting that "powerful though he was, his powers were not limitless", and his rule depended on his willingness to conserve the Soviet structure he had inherited.[882] Kotkin observed that Stalin's ability to remain in power relied on him having a majority in the Politburo at all times.[883] Khlevniuk noted that at various points, particularly when Stalin was old and frail, there were "periodic manifestations" in which the party oligarchy threatened his autocratic control.[777] Stalin denied to foreign visitors that he was a dictator, stating that those who labelled him such did not understand the Soviet governance structure.[884]
A vast literature devoted to Stalin has been produced.[885] During Stalin's lifetime, his approved biographies were largely hagiographic in content.[886] Stalin ensured that these works gave very little attention to his early life, particularly because he did not wish to emphasise his Georgian origins in a state numerically dominated by Russians.[887] Since his death many more biographies have been written,[888] although until the 1980s these relied largely on the same sources of information.[888] Under Mikhail Gorbachev's Soviet administration various previously classified files on Stalin's life were made available to historians,[888] at which point Stalin became "one of the most urgent and vital issues on the public agenda" in the Soviet Union.[889] After the dissolution of the Union in 1991, the rest of the archives were opened to historians, resulting in much new information about Stalin coming to light,[890] and producing a flood of new research.[885]
Leninists remain divided in their views on Stalin; some view him as Lenin's authentic successor, while others believe he betrayed Lenin's ideas by deviating from them.[716] The socio-economic nature of Stalin's Soviet Union has also been much debated, varyingly being labelled a form of state socialism, state capitalism, bureaucratic collectivism, or a totally unique mode of production.[891] Socialist writers like Volkogonov have acknowledged that Stalin's actions damaged "the enormous appeal of socialism generated by the October Revolution".[892]
Death toll and allegations of genocide
With a high number of excess deaths occurring under his rule, Stalin has been labeled "one of the most notorious figures in history."[864] These deaths occurred as a result of collectivisation, famine, terror campaigns, disease, war and mortality rates in the Gulag. As the majority of excess deaths under Stalin were not direct killings, the exact number of victims of Stalinism is difficult to calculate due to lack of consensus among scholars on which deaths can be attributed to the regime.[893]
Official records reveal 799,455 documented executions in the Soviet Union between 1921 and 1953; 681,692 of these were carried out between 1937 and 1938, the years of the Great Purge.[894] According to Michael Ellman, the best modern estimate for the number of repression deaths during the Great Purge is 950,000–1.2 million, which includes executions, deaths in detention, or soon after their release.[895] In addition, while archival data shows that 1,053,829 perished in the Gulag from 1934 to 1953,[896] the current historical consensus is that of the 18 million people who passed through the Gulag system from 1930 to 1953, between 1.5 and 1.7 million died as a result of their incarceration.[897] Historian and archival researcher Stephen G. Wheatcroft and Michael Ellman attribute roughly 3 million deaths to the Stalinist regime, including executions and deaths from criminal negligence.[898] Wheatcroft and historian R. W. Davies estimate famine deaths at 5.5–6.5 million[899] while scholar Steven Rosefielde gives a number of 8.7 million.[900] In 2011, historian Timothy D. Snyder in 2011 summarised modern data made after the opening of the Soviet archives in the 1990s and states that Stalin's regime was responsible for 9 million deaths, with 6 million of these being deliberate killings. He further states the estimate is far lower than the estimates of 20 million or above which were made before access to the archives.[901]
Historians continue to debate whether or not the 1932–33 Ukrainian famine, known in Ukraine as the Holodomor, should be called a genocide.[902] Twenty six countries officially recognise it under the legal definition of genocide. In 2006, the Ukrainian Parliament declared it to be such,[903] and in 2010 a Ukrainian court posthumously convicted Stalin, Lazar Kaganovich, Stanislav Kosior, and other Soviet leaders of genocide.[904] Popular among some Ukrainian nationalists is the idea that Stalin consciously organised the famine to suppress national desires among the Ukrainian people. This interpretation has been disputed by more recent historical studies.[905] These have articulated the view that while Stalin's policies contributed significantly to the high mortality rate, there is no evidence that Stalin or the Soviet government consciously engineered the famine.[906] The idea that this was a targeted attack on the Ukrainians is complicated by the widespread suffering that also affected other Soviet peoples in the famine, including the Russians.[907] Within Ukraine, ethnic Poles and Bulgarians died in similar proportions to ethnic Ukrainians.[908] Despite any lack of clear intent on Stalin's part, the historian Norman Naimark noted that although there may not be sufficient "evidence to convict him in an international court of justice as a genocidaire [...] that does not mean that the event itself cannot be judged as genocide."[909]
In the Soviet Union and its successor states
Shortly after his death, the Soviet Union went through a period of de-Stalinization. Malenkov denounced the Stalin personality cult,[910] which was subsequently criticised in Pravda.[911] In 1956, Khrushchev gave his "Secret Speech", titled "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences", to a closed session of the Party's 20th Congress. There, Khrushchev denounced Stalin for both his mass repression and his personality cult.[912] He repeated these denunciations at the 22nd Party Congress in October 1962.[913] In October 1961, Stalin's body was removed from the mausoleum and buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, the location marked by a bust.[914] Stalingrad was renamed Volgograd.[915]
Khrushchev's de-Stalinisation process in Soviet society ended when he was replaced as leader by Leonid Brezhnev in 1964; the latter introduced a level of re-Stalinisation within the Soviet Union.[916] In 1969 and again in 1979, plans were proposed for a full rehabilitation of Stalin's legacy but on both occasions were defeated by critics within the Soviet and international Marxist–Leninist movement.[917] Gorbachev saw the total denunciation of Stalin as necessary for the regeneration of Soviet society.[918] After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the first President of the new Russian Federation, Boris Yeltsin, continued Gorbachev's denunciation of Stalin but added to it a denunciation of Lenin.[918] His successor Vladimir Putin did not seek to rehabilitate Stalin but emphasised the celebration of Soviet achievements under Stalin's leadership rather than the Stalinist repressions.[919] In October 2017, Putin opened the Wall of Grief memorial in Moscow, noting that the "terrible past" would neither be "justified by anything" nor "erased from the national memory."[920]
Amid the social and economic turmoil of the post-Soviet period, many Russians viewed Stalin as having overseen an era of order, predictability, and pride.[921] He remains a revered figure among many Russian nationalists, who feel nostalgic about the Soviet victory over Nazi Germany in World War II,[922] and he is regularly invoked approvingly within both Russia's far-left and far-right.[923] In the 2008 Name of Russia television show, Stalin was voted as the third most notable personality in Russian history.[924]
Polling by the Levada Center suggest Stalin's popularity has grown since 2015, with 46% of Russians expressing a favourable view of him in 2017 and 51% in 2019.[925] The Center, in 2019, reports that around 70% of Russians believe that Stalin played a positive role in their homeland[926] and in May 2021, a survey finds that Stalin is the most important personality in Russian public opinion, followed by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander Pushkin.[927] At the same time, there was a growth in pro-Stalinist literature in Russia, much relying upon the misrepresentation or fabrication of source material.[928] In this literature, Stalin's repressions are regarded either as a necessary measure to defeat "enemies of the people" or the result of lower-level officials acting without Stalin's knowledge.[928]
The only part of the former Soviet Union where admiration for Stalin has remained consistently widespread is Georgia, although Georgian attitude has been very divided.[929] A number of Georgians resent criticism of Stalin, the most famous figure from their nation's modern history.[922] A 2013 survey by Tbilisi State University found 45% of Georgians expressing "a positive attitude" to him.[930] A 2017 Pew Research survey had 57% of Georgians saying he played a positive role in history, compared to 18% of those expressing the same for Mikhail Gorbachev.[931]
Some positive sentiment can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the Carnegie Endowment found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin."[932] In early 2010, a new monument to Stalin was erected in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine.[933] In December 2010, unknown persons cut off its head and it was destroyed in an explosion in 2011.[934] In a 2016 Kyiv International Institute of Sociology poll, 38% of respondents had a negative attitude to Stalin, 26% a neutral one and 17% a positive, with 19% refusing to answer.[935]
See also
- Bibliography of Stalinism and the Soviet Union
- European interwar dictatorships
- Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s
- Foreign relations of the Soviet Union
- Index of Soviet Union-related articles
- List of places named after Joseph Stalin
- Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village after Collectivization
- Stalin and the Scientists
- Stalin: Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928
- Stalin: Waiting for Hitler, 1929–1941
Notes
- ^ Despite abolishing the office of General Secretary in 1952, Stalin continued to exercise its powers as the Secretariat's highest-ranking member.
- ^ After Stalin's death, Georgy Malenkov succeeded him as both head of government and the highest-ranking member of the party apparatus.
- ^ The Constituent Assembly was declared dissolved by the Bolshevik-Left SR Soviet government, rendering the end the term served.
- ^ Stalin's original Georgian name was Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili (იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი). The Russian equivalent of this is Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили). During his years as a revolutionary, he adopted the alias "Stalin", and after the October Revolution he made it his legal name.
- ^ While forced to give up control of the Secretariat almost immediately after succeeding Stalin as the body's de facto head, Malenkov was still recognised as "first among equals" within the regime for over a year. As late as March 1954, he remained listed as first in the Soviet leadership and continued to chair meetings of the Politburo.
- ^
- Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин, romanized: Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin Russian pronunciation: [ɪˈosʲɪf vʲɪsərʲɪˈonəvʲɪt͡ɕ ˈstalʲɪn]
- Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე სტალინი.
- ^
- Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили
- Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი
- ^ Georgian: იოსებ ბესარიონის ძე ჯუღაშვილი
Georgian pronunciation: [iɔsɛb bɛsɑriɔnis dzɛ dʒuɣɑʃvilii]
Russian equivalent: Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили) - ^ Although there is inconsistency among published sources about Stalin's exact date of birth, Ioseb Jughashvili is found in the records of the Uspensky Church in Gori, Georgia as born on 18 December (Old Style: 6 December) 1878. This birth date is maintained in his school leaving certificate, his extensive tsarist Russia police file, a police arrest record from 18 April 1902 which gave his age as 23 years, and all other surviving pre-Revolution documents. As late as 1921, Stalin himself listed his birthday as 18 December 1878 in a curriculum vitae in his own handwriting. After coming to power in 1922, Stalin gave his birth date as 21 December 1879 (Old Style date 9 December 1879). That became the day his birthday was celebrated in the Soviet Union.[6]
References
Citations
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 742, note 25. Starting in about 1920, Stalin gave a birth date of 21 December [O.S. 9] 1879 despite being born on 18 December [O.S. 6] 1878.
- ^ "1989: Malta summit ends Cold War". BBC. 3 December 1989. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 2; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 15.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 16.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 2; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 19; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 26; Conquest 1991, p. 1; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 22; Kotkin 2014, p. 17; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 11.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, p. 23; Kotkin 2014, p. 17.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 14; Montefiore 2007, p. 22; Kotkin 2014, p. 16.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 16; Montefiore 2007, pp. 22, 32.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 19.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, p. 25; Kotkin 2014, p. 20; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 10; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 17; Montefiore 2007, p. 29; Kotkin 2014, p. 24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 30–31; Kotkin 2014, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Montefiore 2007, p. 31; Kotkin 2014, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 11; Service 2004, p. 20; Montefiore 2007, pp. 32–34; Kotkin 2014, p. 21.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 20; Montefiore 2007, p. 36.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Service 2004, p. 30; Montefiore 2007, p. 44; Kotkin 2014, p. 26.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 44.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 13; Service 2004, p. 30; Montefiore 2007, p. 43; Kotkin 2014, p. 26.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 31; Kotkin 2014, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 12; Service 2004, p. 25; Montefiore 2007, pp. 35, 46; Kotkin 2014, pp. 20–21.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 28; Montefiore 2007, pp. 51–53; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 15.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Service 2004, p. 36; Montefiore 2007, p. 56; Kotkin 2014, p. 32; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 16.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 18; Service 2004, p. 38; Montefiore 2007, p. 57; Kotkin 2014, p. 33.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 58.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 69; Kotkin 2014, p. 32; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 69; Kotkin 2014, pp. 36–37; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 19.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 19; Montefiore 2007, p. 62; Kotkin 2014, pp. 36, 37; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 18.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 63.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 14; Volkogonov 1991, p. 5; Service 2004, pp. 27–28; Montefiore 2007, p. 63; Kotkin 2014, pp. 23–24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 17.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 38; Montefiore 2007, p. 64.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 69.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 40; Kotkin 2014, p. 43.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 66.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 65; Kotkin 2014, p. 44.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 41; Montefiore 2007, p. 71.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 54; Conquest 1991, p. 27; Service 2004, pp. 43–44; Montefiore 2007, p. 76; Kotkin 2014, pp. 47–48.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 79.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 54; Conquest 1991, p. 27; Montefiore 2007, p. 78.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 78.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 27; Service 2004, p. 45; Montefiore 2007, pp. 81–82; Kotkin 2014, p. 49.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 82.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 28; Montefiore 2007, p. 82; Kotkin 2014, p. 50.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 87.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 63; Rieber 2005, pp. 37–38; Montefiore 2007, pp. 87–88.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Rieber 2005, p. 39; Montefiore 2007, p. 101; Kotkin 2014, p. 51.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 91, 95; Kotkin 2014, p. 53.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 90–93; Kotkin 2014, p. 51; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 22–23.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 49; Montefiore 2007, pp. 94–95; Kotkin 2014, p. 52; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 23.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 97–98.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 49; Rieber 2005, p. 42; Montefiore 2007, p. 98; Kotkin 2014, p. 52.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 67; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 101.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 67; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 105.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 68; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Montefiore 2007, p. 107; Kotkin 2014, p. 53; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 23.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 75; Conquest 1991, p. 29; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 111.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 114–115.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, pp. 115–116; Kotkin 2014, p. 53.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 57; Montefiore 2007, p. 123.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 54; Montefiore 2007, pp. 117–118; Kotkin 2014, p. 77.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 33–34; Service 2004, p. 53; Montefiore 2007, p. 113; Kotkin 2014, pp. 78–79; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 76; Service 2004, p. 59; Kotkin 2014, p. 80; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 24.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 131.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 38; Service 2004, p. 59.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 80; Service 2004, p. 56; Montefiore 2007, p. 126.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, pp. 84–85; Service 2004, p. 56.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 58; Montefiore 2007, pp. 128–129.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 129.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 131–132.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 132.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 143.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 132–133.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 87; Montefiore 2007, pp. 135, 144.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 137.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, pp. 89–90; Service 2004, p. 60; Montefiore 2007, p. 145.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 145.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 90; Conquest 1991, p. 37; Service 2004, p. 60; Kotkin 2014, p. 81.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 92; Montefiore 2007, p. 147; Kotkin 2014, p. 105.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 94; Conquest 1991, pp. 39–40; Service 2004, pp. 61, 62; Montefiore 2007, p. 156.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 96; Conquest 1991, p. 40; Service 2004, p. 62; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 26.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 96; Service 2004, p. 62; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 168; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 64; Montefiore 2007, p. 159; Kotkin 2014, p. 105.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 64; Montefiore 2007, p. 167; Kotkin 2014, p. 106; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 25.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 65.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 41; Service 2004, p. 65; Montefiore 2007, pp. 168–170; Kotkin 2014, p. 108.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 41–42; Service 2004, p. 75; Kotkin 2014, p. 113.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 100; Montefiore 2007, p. 180; Kotkin 2014, p. 114.
- ^ Deutscher 1966, p. 100; Conquest 1991, pp. 43–44; Service 2004, p. 76; Montefiore 2007, p. 184.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 190.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 186.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 189.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 191; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 44; Service 2004, p. 71; Montefiore 2007, p. 193; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 194.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 74; Montefiore 2007, p. 196; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 197–198; Kotkin 2014, p. 115.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 195.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 44; Service 2004, p. 68; Montefiore 2007, p. 203; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 45; Montefiore 2007, pp. 203–204.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 45; Service 2004, p. 68; Montefiore 2007, pp. 206, 208; Kotkin 2014, p. 116.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, p. 212; Kotkin 2014, p. 117.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, pp. 222, 226; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 79; Montefiore 2007, pp. 227, 229, 230–231; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 47; Service 2004, p. 80; Montefiore 2007, pp. 231, 234; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 79; Montefiore 2007, p. 234; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 236; Kotkin 2014, p. 121.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 237; Kotkin 2014, pp. 121–22.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 83; Kotkin 2014, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 48; Service 2004, p. 83; Montefiore 2007, p. 240; Kotkin 2014, pp. 122–123.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 240.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 241.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 84; Montefiore 2007, p. 243.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 84; Montefiore 2007, p. 247.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 51; Montefiore 2007, p. 248.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 249; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 86; Montefiore 2007, p. 250; Kotkin 2014, p. 154.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 51; Service 2004, pp. 86–87; Montefiore 2007, pp. 250–251.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 252–253.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 255.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 256.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 52; Service 2004, pp. 87–88; Montefiore 2007, pp. 256–259; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 263.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 54; Service 2004, p. 89; Montefiore 2007, p. 263.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 89; Montefiore 2007, pp. 264–265.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 59.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 266.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 53; Service 2004, p. 85; Montefiore 2007, p. 266; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. 267.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Volkogonov 1991, p. 7; Service 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Service 2004, p. 85.
- ^ Himmer 1986, p. 269; Volkogonov 1991, p. 7; Montefiore 2007, p. 268; Kotkin 2014, p. 133.
- ^ a b Himmer 1986, p. 269.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 267–268.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 268–270; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 28.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 54; Service 2004, pp. 102–103; Montefiore 2007, pp. 270, 273; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 29.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 273–274.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 55; Service 2004, pp. 105–106; Montefiore 2007, pp. 277–278; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 29.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 107; Montefiore 2007, pp. 282–285; Kotkin 2014, p. 155; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 30.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 292–293.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 298, 300.
- ^ The Siberian Times, 6 April 2016.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 287.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 56; Service 2004, p. 110; Montefiore 2007, pp. 288–289.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 57; Service 2004, pp. 113–114; Montefiore 2007, p. 300; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 57; Montefiore 2007, pp. 301–302; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 114; Montefiore 2007, p. 302; Kotkin 2014, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 114; Montefiore 2007, p. 302.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 57–58; Service 2004, pp. 116–117; Montefiore 2007, pp. 302–303; Kotkin 2014, p. 178; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 42.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 15, 19; Service 2004, p. 117; Montefiore 2007, p. 304; Kotkin 2014, p. 173.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 19; Service 2004, p. 120; Montefiore 2007, p. 310.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 59–60; Montefiore 2007, p. 310.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 64; Service 2004, p. 131; Montefiore 2007, p. 316; Kotkin 2014, p. 193; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 46.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 316.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 144.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 65; Montefiore 2007, pp. 319–320.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 32.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 322–324; Kotkin 2014, p. 203; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 48–49.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, p. 326; Kotkin 2014, p. 204.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 68; Service 2004, p. 138.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 332–333, 335.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 144; Montefiore 2007, pp. 337–338.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 145; Montefiore 2007, p. 341.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 341–342.
- ^ Montefiore 2007, pp. 344–346.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 145, 147.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 144–146; Kotkin 2014, p. 224; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 53.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 177.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 147–148; Kotkin 2014, pp. 227–228, 229; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 28–29; Service 2004, p. 148.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71; Kotkin 2014, p. 228.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 71, 90; Kotkin 2014, p. 318.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71; Kotkin 2014, p. 229.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 27; Kotkin 2014, p. 226.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 150.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 157.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 149.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 155.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 158.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 148.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 70; Volkogonov 1991, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 148; Kotkin 2014, p. 228; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, p. 151.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, p. 167; Kotkin 2014, p. 264; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 49.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 71.
- ^ a b Conquest 1991, p. 71; Service 2004, p. 152.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 153.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 72; Service 2004, pp. 150–151; Kotkin 2014, pp. 259–264.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 75; Service 2004, pp. 158–161; Kotkin 2014, p. 250.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 159–160; Kotkin 2014, p. 250.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 75; Service 2004, p. 161; Kotkin 2014, pp. 257–258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 161; Kotkin 2014, pp. 258–259, 265.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 259.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 165; Kotkin 2014, pp. 268–270.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 77; Volkogonov 1991, p. 39; Montefiore 2003, p. 27; Service 2004, p. 163; Kotkin 2014, pp. 300–301; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 54.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 164; Kotkin 2014, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 78, 82; Montefiore 2007, p. 28; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 55.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 81; Service 2004, p. 170.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 46; Montefiore 2007, p. 27; Kotkin 2014, pp. 305, 307; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 78–79; Volkogonov 1991, p. 40; Service 2004, p. 166; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 55.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 171.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 83–84; Service 2004, p. 172; Kotkin 2014, p. 314.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 172.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 85; Service 2004, p. 172.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 173, 174.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 185.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 86; Volkogonov 1991, p. 45; Kotkin 2014, p. 331.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 175.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 91; Service 2004, p. 175.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 176.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 199.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 203, 190.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 174.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 178.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 176; Kotkin 2014, pp. 352–354.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 178; Kotkin 2014, p. 357; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 59.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 176–177.
- ^ a b c d Service 2004, p. 177.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 87; Service 2004, p. 179; Kotkin 2014, p. 362; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 60.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 180, 182; Kotkin 2014, p. 364.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 182.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 182; Kotkin 2014, pp. 364–365.
- ^ Davies 2003, p. 211; Service 2004, pp. 183–185; Kotkin 2014, pp. 376–377.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 377.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 184–185; Kotkin 2014, p. 377.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 392.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, pp. 396–397.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 388.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 202.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 199–200; Kotkin 2014, p. 371.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 200.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 194–196; Kotkin 2014, p. 400.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 194–195; Kotkin 2014, pp. 479–481.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 203–205; Kotkin 2014, p. 400.
- ^ a b Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 232.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 89; Service 2004, p. 187; Kotkin 2014, p. 344; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 64.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 186.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 188.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 96; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 78–70; Service 2004, pp. 189–190; Kotkin 2014, p. 411.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 190.
- ^ Service 2000, p. 369; Service 2004, p. 209; Kotkin 2014, p. 504.
- ^ a b Kotkin 2014, p. 501.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 97; Volkogonov 1991, p. 53; Service 2004, p. 191.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 191–192; Kotkin 2014, p. 413.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 192; Kotkin 2014, p. 414; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 68.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 102; Service 2004, pp. 191–192; Kotkin 2014, p. 528.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 98; Service 2004, p. 193; Kotkin 2014, p. 483; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 69–70.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 95; Service 2004, p. 195; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 71–72.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 195.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 71; Service 2004, p. 194; Kotkin 2014, pp. 475–476; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 98–99; Service 2004, p. 195; Kotkin 2014, pp. 477, 478; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 69.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 74; Service 2004, p. 206; Kotkin 2014, p. 485.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 99–100, 103; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 72–74; Service 2004, pp. 210–211; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 100–101; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 53, 79–82; Service 2004, pp. 208–209; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 71.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 528.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 104; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 219; Kotkin 2014, p. 534; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 110; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 219; Kotkin 2014, pp. 542–543.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130; Montefiore 2003, p. 30; Service 2004, p. 221; Kotkin 2014, p. 540.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 111–112; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 117–118; Service 2004, p. 221; Kotkin 2014, p. 544.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 222–224; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 111; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 93–94; Service 2004, pp. 222–224; Kotkin 2014, pp. 546–548; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 79.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 426.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 453.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 455.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 469.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 432.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, pp. 495–496.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 235.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 127; Service 2004, p. 238.
- ^ Fainsod & Hough 1979, p. 111.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 136.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 27.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 98; Kotkin 2014, p. 474; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 52.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 214–215, 217.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 87.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 225.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 227.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 228.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 228; Kotkin 2014, p. 563.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 240.
- ^ a b Service 2004, pp. 240–243; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 82–83.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 126; Conquest 2008, p. 11; Kotkin 2014, p. 614; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 83.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 137, 138; Kotkin 2014, p. 614.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 247; Kotkin 2014, pp. 614, 618; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 91.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 85.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 139, 151; Service 2004, pp. 282–283; Conquest 2008, pp. 11–12; Kotkin 2014, pp. 676–677; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 85.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 164; Service 2004, p. 282.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 276.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 277, 280; Conquest 2008, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 278.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 39.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 130; Volkogonov 1991, p. 160; Kotkin 2014, p. 689.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 244.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392; Kotkin 2014, pp. 626–631; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 89–90.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 273.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 256.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 254.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 172–173; Service 2004, p. 256; Kotkin 2014, pp. 638–639.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 144, 146; Service 2004, p. 258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 256; Kotkin 2014, p. 571.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 253; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 101.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 147–148; Service 2004, pp. 257–258; Kotkin 2014, pp. 661, 668–669, 679–684; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 102–103.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 103.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 258; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 105.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 267.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 160; Volkogonov 1991, p. 166.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 167.
- ^ a b Sandle 1999, p. 231.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 265–266; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 234.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 266; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 112.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 113.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 271.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 116.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 272; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 116.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 272.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 270; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 160; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 114.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 174.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 172; Service 2004, p. 260; Kotkin 2014, p. 708.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 158; Service 2004, p. 266; Conquest 2008, p. 18.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 227, 229.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 259.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 274.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 265.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 118.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 186, 190.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 269.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 300.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 152–153; Sandle 1999, p. 214; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 107–108.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 108.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 152–155; Service 2004, p. 259; Kotkin 2014, pp. 687, 702–704, 709; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 107.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 268.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 155.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 324.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 326.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 301.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 244, 246.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 299.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 304.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, pp. 111, 127; Service 2004, p. 308.
- ^ Sandle 1999, p. 246; Montefiore 2003, p. 85.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 302–303.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 211, 276–277; Service 2004, p. 307.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 157.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 191.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 325.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 379.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 183–184.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 282.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 261.
- ^ McDermott 1995, pp. 410–411; Conquest 1991, p. 176; Service 2004, pp. 261, 383; Kotkin 2014, p. 720.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 289; Kotkin 2014, p. 595.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 289.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 169; Montefiore 2003, p. 90; Service 2004, pp. 291–292.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 94, 95; Service 2004, pp. 292, 294.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 297.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 316.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 310.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 310; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 627.
- ^ a b Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 628.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 318.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 312; Conquest 2008, pp. 19–20; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 119.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 823.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, pp. 628, 631.
- ^ Ellman 2005, pp. 823–824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 626; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 117.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 834.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 626.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 824; Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, pp. 627–628; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 120.
- ^ a b Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 627.
- ^ Ellman 2005, p. 833; Kuromiya 2008, p. 665.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2006, p. 628; Ellman 2007, p. 664.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 164; Kotkin 2014, p. 724.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 319.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 212; Volkogonov 1991, pp. 552–443; Service 2004, p. 361.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 212.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 361.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 362.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 216.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 386.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 217.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 176; Montefiore 2003, p. 116; Service 2004, p. 340.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 218; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 123, 135.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 135.
- ^ Haslam 1979, pp. 682–683; Conquest 1991, p. 218; Service 2004, p. 385; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 135.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 154.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 219; Service 2004, p. 387.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 154.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 387, 389.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 156.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 392.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. 126.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 125.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 179; Montefiore 2003, pp. 126–127; Service 2004, p. 314; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 128–129.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 327.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 128, 137.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 347.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 315.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 139.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 314–317.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 139, 154–155, 164–172, 175–176; Service 2004, p. 320; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 139.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 139–140.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 192–193; Service 2004, p. 346; Conquest 2008, p. 24; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 176–177.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 349.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 391.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 141, 150.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 350; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, pp. 203–204; Service 2004, pp. 350–351; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 150.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 204; Service 2004, pp. 351, 390; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 151.
- ^ a b c Khlevniuk 2015, p. 151.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 394.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 230; Service 2004, p. 394; Overy 2004, p. 338; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 174.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 201; Service 2004, p. 349; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 137–138, 147.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 140.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 204.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 151, 159.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 152.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 347–248; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 125, 156–157.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 153, 156–157.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 367.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 245.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 209; Service 2004, p. 369; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 160.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 162.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 157.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 159.
- ^ Harris 2017, pp. 1–5, 16.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 308.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 220–221; Service 2004, pp. 380–381.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 392–393; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 163, 168–169.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 185–186.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 232–233, 236.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 399–400.
- ^ Nekrich 1997, p. 109.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 220; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 166.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 220; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 168, 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 221; Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78; Service 2004, p. 399; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 166.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 222; Roberts 1992, pp. 57–78; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 169.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 222; Roberts 2006, p. 43.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 223; Service 2004, pp. 402–403; Wettig 2008, p. 20.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 224.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 224; Service 2004, p. 405.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 228; Service 2004, p. 403; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 172–173.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 279; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 403; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 227; Service 2004, pp. 404–405; Wettig 2008, pp. 20–21; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Brackman 2001, p. 341; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 173.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 170.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 170.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Service 2004, p. 405.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 229; Service 2004, p. 406.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 231; Brackman 2001, pp. 341, 343; Roberts 2006, p. 58.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 233; Roberts 2006, p. 63.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 234; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 180.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 410–411; Roberts 2006, p. 82; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 198.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 408–409, 411–412; Roberts 2006, p. 67; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 199–200, 202.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 414–415; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 206–207.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 413.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 420.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 417; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 201–202.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 235; Service 2004, p. 416.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 418.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 417.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 248–249; Service 2004, p. 420; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 214–215.
- ^ Glantz 2001, p. 26.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 421, 424; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 220.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 482; Roberts 2006, p. 90.
- ^ Gellately 2007, p. 391.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 239–240; Roberts 2006, p. 98; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 209.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 241; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 210.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 241–242; Service 2004, p. 521.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 132; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 223.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 423.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 422.
- ^ Overy 2004, p. 568.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 211.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 421.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 442–443; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 242–243.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 441.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 442.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 446.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 446–447.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 260; Service 2004, p. 444.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 254; Service 2004, p. 424; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 221–222.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 124.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 425.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 426.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 427.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 428; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 225.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 225.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 429; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 226.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 155.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 255; Roberts 2006, p. 156; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 227.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 159.
- ^ Roberts 2006, p. 163.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 452.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 466.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 317; Service 2004, p. 466.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 458.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 252; Service 2004, p. 460; Khlevniuk 2015.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 456.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 460.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 262; Service 2004, p. 460; Roberts 2006, p. 180; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 229–230.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 462.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 463.
- ^ Conquest 1991, pp. 244, 251; Service 2004, pp. 461, 469; Roberts 2006, p. 185; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 223, 229.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 186–187.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 464–465; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ Roberts 2006, pp. 194–195.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 469; Roberts 2006, pp. 199–201.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 492.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 258; Service 2004, p. 492; Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 232–233.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 233.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 264; Service 2004, p. 465; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 465–466.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 465–466; Roberts 2006, pp. 241–244.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 471; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 245.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 471–472; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 244.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 473.
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- ^ a b c Conquest 1991, p. 312.
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- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 178.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 572.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xvi; Volkogonov 1991, p. xxiii; Service 2004, p. 4; Montefiore 2007, p. xxiv.
- ^ a b Montefiore 2007, p. xxiv.
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- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 8; Service 2004, p. 337.
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- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 115.
- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, pp. 4–5.
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- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xvi; Service 2004, p. 18; McDermott 2006, p. 13.
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- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 424.
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- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 337.
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- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 8.
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- ^ Khlevniuk 2015, p. 252.
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- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xi.
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- ^ a b c McDermott 2006, p. 1.
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- ^ McCauley 2003, p. 8; Service 2004, p. 52; Montefiore 2007, p. 9; Kotkin 2014, p. xii; Khlevniuk 2015, p. 12.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 194; Volkogonov 1991, p. 31; Service 2004, p. 370.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 77.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 124.
- ^ Montefiore 2003, p. 215.
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- ^ McDermott 2006, p. 2.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 370.
- ^ McDermott 2006, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 8, 9.
- ^ Kotkin 2014, p. 596.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 182.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. ix.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 4.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 13.
- ^ a b c Service 2004, p. 6.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. xiii.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 6; Montefiore 2007, p. xxi.
- ^ Sandle 1999, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 173.
- ^ Ellman 2002, pp. 1163–1164.
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov 1993, p. 1022.
- ^ Ellman 2002, pp. 1162–1163.
- ^ Getty, Rittersporn & Zemskov 1993, p. 1024.
- ^ Healey 2018, p. 1049: "New studies using declassified Gulag archives have provisionally established a consensus on mortality and 'inhumanity.' The tentative consensus says that once secret records of the Gulag administration in Moscow show a lower death toll than expected from memoir sources, generally between 1.5 and 1.7 million (out of 18 million who passed through) for the years from 1930 to 1953."
- ^ Wheatcroft 1996, pp. 1334, 1348; Ellman 2002, p. 1172.
- ^ Davies & Wheatcroft 2004, p. 401.
- ^ Rosefielde 1996.
- ^ Snyder 2010, p. 384; Snyder 2011.
- ^ Moore 2012, p. 367.
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- ^ RIA Novosti, 13 January 2010; The New York Review of Books, 26 May 2010.
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- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 314.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 592.
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- ^ Service 2004, p. 594.
- ^ Volkogonov 1991, p. 576; Service 2004, p. 594.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 595.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 315; Service 2004, p. 595.
- ^ Conquest 1991, p. 315.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 596.
- ^ Service 2004, pp. 596–597.
- ^ BBC, 5 June 2018.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 598.
- ^ a b Service 2004, p. 7.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 599.
- ^ The Guardian, 29 December 2008.
- ^ The Washington Post, 15 February 2017; The Daily Telegraph, 16 April 2019; BBC, 18 April 2019.
- ^ "Stalin's Approval Rating Among Russians Hits Record High – Poll". themoscowtimes.com. 16 April 2019.
- ^ "САМЫЕ ВЫДАЮЩИЕСЯ ЛИЧНОСТИ В ИСТОРИИ". levada.ru. 21 June 2021.
- ^ a b Khlevniuk 2015, p. x.
- ^ Service 2004, p. 597.
- ^ BBC, 5 March 2013.
- ^ Pew Research Center, 29 June 2017.
- ^ Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1 March 2013; The Moscow Times, 2 March 2013.
- ^ The New York Review of Books, 26 May 2010.
- ^ RIA Novosti, 25 February 2011.
- ^ Ukrayinska Pravda, 4 March 2015.
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Magazines, newspapers and websites
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Further reading
- Applebaum, Anne (2003). Gulag: A History. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-7679-0056-0.
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-05024-8.
- Boobbyer, Phillip (2000). The Stalin Era. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7679-0056-0.
- Conquest, Robert (1997). "Victims of Stalinism: A Comment" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 49 (7): 1317–1319. doi:10.1080/09668139708412501.
- Davies, Sarah (1997). Popular Opinion in Stalin's Russia: Terror, Propaganda and Dissent, 1934–1941. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-156676-6.
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James, eds. (2005). Stalin: A New History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-13-944663-1.
- Davies, Sarah; Harris, James, eds. (2014). Stalin's World: Dictating the Soviet Order. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-018281-1.
- Edmonds, Robin (1992). The Big Three: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin in Peace and War (revised ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-010402-8.
- Feis, Herbert (1957). Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War They Waged and the Peace They Sought. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.
- Fitzpatrick, Sheila (1996). Stalin's Peasants: Resistance and Survival in the Russian Village After Collectivization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510459-2.
- Fitzpatrick, Sheila (2000). Everyday Stalinism: Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-505001-1.
- Getty, J. Arch (1987). Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered, 1933–1938. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-133570-6.
- Getty, J. Arch (1993). Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52-144670-9.
- Getty, J. Arch (2013). Practicing Stalinism: Bolsheviks, Boyars, and the Persistence of Tradition. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30-016929-4.
- Hasegawa, Tsuyoshi (2005). Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan. ISBN 9780674016934.
- Khlevniuk, Oleg V. (2009). Master of the House: Stalin and His Inner Circle. Translated by Seligman Favorov, Nora. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11066-1.
- Kun, Miklós (2003). Stalin: An Unknown Portrait. Translated by Bodóczky, Miklós; Hideg, Rachel; Higed, János; Vörös, Miklós. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 963-9241-19-9.
- Kuromiya, Hiroaki (2005). Stalin: Profiles in Power. New York.
- Murphy, David E. (2006). What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11981-7.
- Nekrich, Aleksandr Moiseevich; Ulam, Adam Bruno; Freeze, Gregory L. (1997). Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922–1941. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10676-4.
- Ostrovsky, Aleksander (2002). Кто стоял за спиной Сталина? [Who stood behind Stalin's back?]. Moscow: Neva, Olma Media Group. ISBN 978-5-7654-1771-3.
- Plamper, Jan (2012). The Stalin Cult: A Study in the Alchemy of Power. New Haven.
- Radzinsky, Edvard (1997). Stalin: The First In-Depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archive. New York.
- Rayfield, Donald (2005). Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed For Him. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-191419-0.
- Rieber, A. J. (2001). "Stalin, Man of the Borderlands". American Historical Review. 106 (4): 1651–1691. doi:10.2307/2692742. JSTOR 2692742.
- Roberts, Geoffrey (2007). "Stalin at the Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam conferences". Journal of Cold War Studies. 9 (4): 6–40. doi:10.1162/jcws.2007.9.4.6. S2CID 57564917.
- Stalin's Correspondence With Churchill Attlee Roosevelt And Truman 1941-45. E. P. Dutton & Co. 1958.
- Thurston, Robert W. (1998). Life and Terror in Stalin's Russia, 1934–1941. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07442-0.
- Torchinov, V.A.; Leontyuk, A.M. (2000). Around Stalin. An historical and biographical reference. St Petersburg: Philological Faculty Saint-Petersburg University. ISBN 978-5-846-50005-1.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1973). Stalin as Revolutionary: 1879–1929: A Study in History and Personality. New York, Norton. ISBN 9780393054873.
- Tucker, Robert C. (1990). Stalin in Power: The Revolution from Above, 1928–1941. New York.
- Ulam, Adam B. (1973). Stalin: The Man and His Era. New York: New York, Viking Press. ISBN 9780670666836.
- Uldricks, Teddy J. (2009). "War, Politics and Memory: Russian Historians Reevaluate the Origins of World War II". History and Memory. 21 (2): 60–82. doi:10.2979/his.2009.21.2.60. S2CID 153650494.
- van Ree, Erik (2002). The Political Thought of Joseph Stalin: A Study in Twentieth-Century Revolutionary Patriotism. London and New York.
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. (1994). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. ISBN 9780521443173.
- Wheatcroft, Stephen G. (1999). "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data. Not the Last Word" (PDF). Europe-Asia Studies. 51 (2): 340–342. doi:10.1080/09668139999056.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John W. (1946). "Twenty Years of Russo-German Relations: 1919-1939". Foreign Affairs. 25 (1): 23–43. doi:10.2307/20030017. JSTOR 20030017.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- Quotations from Wikiquote
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