Inglaterra
Inglaterra | |
|---|---|
| Himno: Varios predominantemente " God Save the Queen " ( Himno nacional del Reino Unido ) | |
 Ubicación de Inglaterra (verde oscuro) - en Europa (verde y gris oscuro) | |
| Estado | País |
| Capital y ciudad más grande | Londres 51 ° 30′N 0 ° 7′W / 51.500°N 0.117°W |
| idioma nacional | inglés |
| Idiomas regionales | de Cornualles |
| Grupos étnicos ( 2011 ) | |
| Religión ( 2011 ) |
|
| Demonym (s) | inglés |
| Gobierno | Parte de una monarquía constitucional , gobierno directo ejercido por el gobierno del Reino Unido [a] |
• Monarca | Isabel II |
| Parlamento del Reino Unido | |
| • Cámara de los Comunes | 533 diputados (de 650) |
| Legislatura | Parlamento del Reino Unido [a] |
| Establecimiento | |
| 12 de julio de 927 | |
| 1 de mayo de 1707 | |
| Zona | |
• Tierra | 130.279 km 2 (50.301 millas cuadradas) [1] |
| Población | |
• Estimación 2019 |  56,286,961 [2] |
• censo de 2011 | 53.012.500 [3] |
• Densidad | 432 / km 2 (1.118,9 / millas cuadradas) [4] |
| VAB | Estimación 2019 |
| • Total | £ 1,9 billones [5] |
| • Per cápita | £ 33,800 |
| Divisa | Libra esterlina ( GBP ; £ ) |
| Zona horaria | UTC ( hora media de Greenwich ) |
• Verano ( DST ) | UTC +1 ( horario de verano británico ) |
| Formato de fecha | dd / mm / aaaa ( AD ) |
| Lado de conducción | izquierda |
| Código de llamada | +44 |
| Código ISO 3166 | GB-ENG |
| |
Inglaterra es un país que forma parte del Reino Unido . [6] [7] [8] Comparte fronteras terrestres con Gales al oeste y Escocia al norte. El Mar de Irlanda se encuentra al noroeste de Inglaterra y el Mar Céltico al suroeste. Inglaterra está separada de Europa continental por el Mar del Norte al este y el Canal de la Mancha al sur. El país cubre cinco octavos de la isla de Gran Bretaña , que se encuentra en el Atlántico norte , e incluye más de 100 islas más pequeñas., como las Islas Sorlingas y la Isla de Wight .
El área que ahora se llama Inglaterra fue habitada por primera vez por humanos modernos durante el período Paleolítico superior , pero toma su nombre de los ángulos , una tribu germánica que deriva su nombre de la península de Anglia , que se estableció durante los siglos V y VI. Inglaterra se convirtió en un estado unificado en el siglo X y ha tenido un impacto cultural y legal significativo en el resto del mundo desde la Era de los Descubrimientos , que comenzó durante el siglo XV. [9] El idioma inglés , la Iglesia anglicana y el derecho inglés: la base del derecho consuetudinariosistemas legales de muchos otros países del mundo, desarrollados en Inglaterra, y el sistema parlamentario de gobierno del país ha sido ampliamente adoptado por otras naciones. [10] La Revolución Industrial comenzó en la Inglaterra del siglo XVIII, transformando su sociedad en la primera nación industrializada del mundo. [11]
El terreno de Inglaterra es principalmente colinas bajas y llanuras , especialmente en el centro y sur de Inglaterra. Sin embargo, hay tierras altas y montañosas en el norte (por ejemplo, Lake District y Pennines ) y en el oeste (por ejemplo, Dartmoor y Shropshire Hills ). La capital es Londres , que tiene el área metropolitana más grande tanto del Reino Unido como, antes del Brexit , de la Unión Europea . [nb 1] La población de Inglaterra de 56,3 millones comprende el 84% de la población del Reino Unido, [4] concentrada principalmente alrededor de Londres, el surestey conurbaciones en Midlands , el noroeste , el noreste y Yorkshire , que se desarrollaron como importantes regiones industriales durante el siglo XIX. [12]
El Reino de Inglaterra , que después de 1535 incluía Gales, dejó de ser un estado soberano separado el 1 de mayo de 1707, cuando las Actas de Unión pusieron en vigor los términos acordados en el Tratado de Unión el año anterior, dando como resultado una unión política con el Reino. de Escocia para crear el Reino de Gran Bretaña . [13] [14] En 1801, Gran Bretaña se unió al Reino de Irlanda (a través de otro Acta de Unión ) para convertirse en el Reino Unido de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda . En 1922, el Estado Libre de Irlandase separó del Reino Unido, lo que llevó a que este último pasara a llamarse Reino Unido de Gran Bretaña e Irlanda del Norte. [15]
Toponimia
El nombre "Inglaterra" se deriva del nombre inglés antiguo Englaland , que significa "tierra de los ángulos ". [16] Los anglos fueron una de las tribus germánicas que se asentaron en Gran Bretaña durante la Alta Edad Media . Los Angles procedían de la península de Anglia en el área de la Bahía de Kiel (actual estado alemán de Schleswig-Holstein ) del Mar Báltico . [17] El primer uso registrado del término, como "Engla londe", se encuentra en la traducción de finales del siglo IX al inglés antiguo de Bede 'sHistoria eclesiástica del pueblo inglés . El término se usó entonces en un sentido diferente al moderno, que significa "la tierra habitada por los ingleses", e incluía a los ingleses en lo que ahora es el sureste de Escocia, pero que en ese entonces formaba parte del reino inglés de Northumbria . La Crónica anglosajona registró que el Libro de Domesday de 1086 cubría toda Inglaterra, es decir, el reino inglés, pero unos años más tarde la Crónica declaró que el rey Malcolm III "salió de Escocia a Lothian en Inglaterra", usándolo así en el sentido más antiguo. [18]
La primera referencia atestiguada a los ángulos se encuentra en la obra del siglo I de Tácito , Germania , en la que se usa la palabra latina Anglii . [19] Los eruditos cuestionan la etimología del nombre tribal en sí; se ha sugerido que se deriva de la forma de la península de Angeln, una forma angular . [20] Se desconoce cómo y por qué un término derivado del nombre de una tribu que era menos significativa que otras, como los sajones , llegó a usarse para todo el país y su gente, pero parece que esto está relacionado con el costumbre de llamar al pueblo germánico en Gran Bretaña Angli Saxoneso los sajones ingleses para distinguirlos de los sajones continentales (Eald-Seaxe) de la antigua Sajonia entre los ríos Weser y Eider en el norte de Alemania. [21] En gaélico escocés , otro idioma que se desarrolló en la isla de Gran Bretaña, la tribu sajona dio su nombre a la palabra para Inglaterra ( Sasunn ); [22] de manera similar, el nombre galés para el idioma inglés es " Saesneg ". Un nombre romántico para Inglaterra es Loegria , relacionado con la palabra galesa para Inglaterra, Lloegr , y popularizado por su uso en la leyenda artúrica . Albion también se aplica a Inglaterra en una capacidad más poética, [23] aunque su significado original es la isla de Gran Bretaña en su conjunto.
Historia
Prehistoria y antigüedad
La evidencia más antigua conocida de presencia humana en el área que ahora se conoce como Inglaterra fue la del Homo antecessor , que data de hace aproximadamente 780.000 años. Los huesos protohumanos más antiguos descubiertos en Inglaterra datan de hace 500.000 años. [24] Se sabe que los humanos modernos habitaron el área durante el período Paleolítico superior , aunque los asentamientos permanentes solo se establecieron en los últimos 6.000 años. [25] [26] Después de la última edad de hielo, solo quedaron grandes mamíferos como mamuts , bisontes y rinocerontes lanudos . Hace aproximadamente 11.000 años, cuando las capas de hielocomenzó a retroceder, los humanos repoblaron el área; La investigación genética sugiere que proceden de la parte norte de la Península Ibérica . [27] El nivel del mar era más bajo que ahora y Gran Bretaña estaba conectada por un puente terrestre a Irlanda y Eurasia . [28] A medida que subían los mares, se separó de Irlanda hace 10.000 años y de Eurasia dos milenios más tarde.
La cultura Beaker llegó alrededor del 2500 a.C., introduciendo recipientes para beber y alimentos construidos con arcilla, así como recipientes utilizados como ollas de reducción para fundir minerales de cobre. [29] Fue durante este tiempo que se construyeron los principales monumentos neolíticos como Stonehenge y Avebury . Al calentar juntos el estaño y el cobre, que abundaban en la zona, la gente de la cultura Beaker fabricaba bronce y más tarde hierro a partir de minerales de hierro. El desarrollo de la fundición de hierro permitió la construcción de mejores arados , el avance de la agricultura (por ejemplo, con los campos celtas ), así como la producción de armas más efectivas.[30]
Durante la Edad del Hierro , la cultura celta , derivada de las culturas de Hallstatt y La Tène , llegó desde Europa Central. Brythonic fue el idioma hablado durante este tiempo. La sociedad era tribal; según la Geographia de Ptolomeo , había alrededor de 20 tribus en el área. Se desconocen las divisiones anteriores porque los británicos no sabían leer y escribir. Al igual que otras regiones al borde del Imperio, Gran Bretaña había disfrutado durante mucho tiempo de vínculos comerciales con los romanos. Julio César de la República Romana intentó invadir dos veces en el 55 aC; aunque fracasó en gran medida, se las arregló para establecer un rey cliente de laTrinovantes .
Los romanos invadieron Gran Bretaña en el 43 d.C. durante el reinado del emperador Claudio , conquistando posteriormente gran parte de Gran Bretaña , y el área se incorporó al Imperio Romano como provincia de Britannia . [31] Las más conocidas de las tribus nativas que intentaron resistir fueron los Catuvellauni liderados por Caratacus . Más tarde, un levantamiento liderado por Boudica , Reina de los Iceni , terminó con el suicidio de Boudica tras su derrota en la Batalla de Watling Street . [32]El autor de un estudio de la Gran Bretaña romana sugirió que desde el 43 d. C. hasta el 84 d. C., los invasores romanos mataron entre 100.000 y 250.000 personas de una población de quizás 2.000.000. [33] Esta época vio prevalecer una cultura grecorromana con la introducción del derecho romano , la arquitectura romana , los acueductos , las alcantarillas , muchos artículos agrícolas y la seda. [34] [35] [36] En el siglo III, el emperador Septimio Severo murió en Eboracum (ahora York ), donde Constantino fue posteriormente proclamado emperador un siglo después. [37]
Existe un debate sobre cuándo se introdujo por primera vez el cristianismo; no fue más tarde del siglo IV, probablemente mucho antes. Según Beda , Eleuterio envió misioneros desde Roma a pedido del cacique Lucius de Gran Bretaña en 180 d. C., para resolver diferencias en cuanto a ceremonias orientales y occidentales, que estaban perturbando a la iglesia. Hay tradiciones vinculadas a Glastonbury que reclaman una introducción a través de José de Arimatea , mientras que otras afirman a través de Lucius de Gran Bretaña . [38] En 410, durante la decadencia del Imperio Romano , Gran Bretaña quedó expuesta al final del dominio romano en Gran Bretaña.y la retirada de las unidades del ejército romano, para defender las fronteras de la Europa continental y participar en guerras civiles. [39] Florecieron los movimientos monásticos y misioneros cristianos celtas: Patrick (Irlanda del siglo V) y en el siglo VI Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Gales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) y Columba (Iona). Este período del cristianismo fue influenciado por la antigua cultura celta en sus sensibilidades, política, prácticas y teología. Las "congregaciones" locales se centraban en la comunidad monástica y los líderes monásticos eran más como jefes, como pares, que en el sistema más jerárquico de la iglesia dominada por los romanos. [40]
Edad media
Las retiradas militares romanas dejaron a Gran Bretaña expuesta a la invasión de guerreros marineros paganos del noroeste de Europa continental, principalmente los sajones, anglos , jutos y frisones que habían asaltado durante mucho tiempo las costas de la provincia romana. Estos grupos comenzaron a establecerse en números crecientes a lo largo de los siglos V y VI, inicialmente en la parte oriental del país. [39] Su avance fue contenido durante algunas décadas después de la victoria de los británicos en la batalla del monte Badon , pero posteriormente se reanudó, invadiendo las fértiles tierras bajas de Gran Bretaña y reduciendo el área bajo Brittonic.control a una serie de enclaves separados en el país más accidentado al oeste a finales del siglo VI. Los textos contemporáneos que describen este período son extremadamente escasos, lo que da lugar a su descripción como Edad Oscura . En consecuencia, la naturaleza y la progresión del asentamiento anglosajón de Gran Bretaña está sujeta a un considerable desacuerdo; el consenso emergente es que ocurrió a gran escala en el sur y el este, pero fue menos sustancial en el norte y el oeste, donde las lenguas celtas continuaron hablándose incluso en áreas bajo control anglosajón. [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]El cristianismo dominado por los romanos, en general, había desaparecido de los territorios conquistados, pero fue reintroducido por misioneros de Roma dirigidos por Agustín desde el 597 en adelante. [47] Las disputas entre las formas de cristianismo dominadas por los romanos y los celtas terminaron con la victoria de la tradición romana en el Concilio de Whitby (664), que aparentemente se refería a las tonsuras (cortes de pelo clericales) y la fecha de Pascua, pero más significativamente, sobre las diferencias en las formas de autoridad, teología y práctica romanas y celtas. [40]
Durante el período de asentamiento, las tierras gobernadas por los recién llegados parecen haberse fragmentado en numerosos territorios tribales, pero en el siglo VII, cuando nuevamente se dispone de evidencia sustancial de la situación, estos se habían fusionado en aproximadamente una docena de reinos, incluidos Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex. , East Anglia , Essex , Kent y Sussex . Durante los siglos siguientes continuó este proceso de consolidación política. [48] El siglo VII vio una lucha por la hegemonía entre Northumbria y Mercia, que en el siglo VIII dio paso a la preeminencia merciana. [49]A principios del siglo IX, Mercia fue desplazada como el principal reino por Wessex. Más tarde, en ese siglo, la escalada de ataques de los daneses culminó con la conquista del norte y el este de Inglaterra, derrocando los reinos de Northumbria, Mercia y East Anglia. Wessex bajo Alfredo el Grande quedó como el único reino inglés sobreviviente, y bajo sus sucesores, se expandió constantemente a expensas de los reinos de Danelaw . Esto provocó la unificación política de Inglaterra, lograda por primera vez bajo Æthelstan en 927 y definitivamente establecida después de nuevos conflictos por Eadred.en 953. Una nueva ola de ataques escandinavos de finales del siglo X terminó con la conquista de este reino unido por Sweyn Forkbeard en 1013 y nuevamente por su hijo Cnut en 1016, convirtiéndolo en el centro de un breve Imperio del Mar del Norte que también incluyó Dinamarca y Noruega . Sin embargo, la dinastía real nativa se restauró con el ascenso de Eduardo el Confesor en 1042.
Una disputa sobre la sucesión de Eduardo condujo a la conquista normanda en 1066, realizada por un ejército dirigido por el duque Guillermo de Normandía . [50] Los propios normandos se originaron en Escandinavia y se habían establecido en Normandía a finales del siglo IX y principios del X. [51] Esta conquista condujo al despojo casi total de la élite inglesa y su reemplazo por una nueva aristocracia francófona, cuyo discurso tuvo un efecto profundo y permanente en el idioma inglés. [52]
Posteriormente, la Casa de Plantagenet de Anjou heredó el trono inglés bajo Enrique II , agregando Inglaterra al incipiente Imperio Angevino de feudos que la familia había heredado en Francia, incluida Aquitania . [53] Ellos reinaron durante tres siglos, algunos monarcas notables siendo Ricardo I , Eduardo I , Eduardo III y Enrique V . [53] El período vio cambios en el comercio y la legislación, incluida la firma de la Carta Magna , una carta legal inglesa utilizada para limitar los poderes del soberano por ley y proteger los privilegios de los hombres libres. Monaquismo católicofloreció, proporcionando filósofos, y las universidades de Oxford y Cambridge se fundaron con patrocinio real. El Principado de Gales se convirtió en un feudo Plantagenet durante el siglo XIII [54] y el Papa otorgó el señorío de Irlanda a la monarquía inglesa.
Durante el siglo XIV, los Plantagenet y la Casa de Valois afirmaron ser reclamantes legítimos de la Casa de los Capetos y, con ella, de Francia; las dos potencias se enfrentaron en la Guerra de los Cien Años . [55] La epidemia de peste negra azotó Inglaterra ; a partir de 1348, finalmente mató hasta la mitad de los habitantes de Inglaterra . [56] [57] Desde 1453 hasta 1487 se produjo una guerra civil entre dos ramas de la familia real, los yorkistas y los lancasterianos , conocida como la Guerra de las Rosas . [58]Con el tiempo se llevó a Yorkists perder el trono por completo a una familia noble Welsh los Tudor , una rama de los Lancaster encabezada por Enrique Tudor que invadió con galeses y bretones mercenarios, obteniendo la victoria en la Batalla de Bosworth donde el Yorkist rey Ricardo III era delicado. [59]
Temprano moderno
Durante el período Tudor , el Renacimiento llegó a Inglaterra a través de los cortesanos italianos, que reintrodujeron el debate artístico, educativo y académico de la antigüedad clásica. [60] Inglaterra comenzó a desarrollar habilidades navales y se intensificó la exploración hacia Occidente. [61] [62] Enrique VIII rompió la comunión con la Iglesia Católica, por cuestiones relacionadas con su divorcio, bajo las Actas de Supremacía de 1534 que proclamaron el monarca cabeza de la Iglesia de Inglaterra . En contraste con gran parte del protestantismo europeo, las raíces de la división fueron más políticas que teológicas. [nb 2]También incorporó legalmente su tierra ancestral Gales en el Reino de Inglaterra con las leyes de 1535-1542 . Hubo conflictos religiosos internos durante los reinados de las hijas de Henry, María I y Elizabeth I . El primero devolvió al país al catolicismo, mientras que el segundo se separó de él nuevamente, afirmando con fuerza la supremacía del anglicanismo . La era isabelina es la época de la era Tudor del reinado de la reina Isabel I ("la reina virgen"). Los historiadores a menudo lo describen como la edad de oro de la historia de Inglaterra. La Inglaterra isabelina representó el apogeo del Renacimiento inglésy vio el florecimiento del arte, la poesía, la música y la literatura. [64] La época es más famosa por su drama, teatro y dramaturgos. Inglaterra durante este período tuvo un gobierno centralizado, bien organizado y eficaz como resultado de las vastas reformas de los Tudor. [sesenta y cinco]
Compitiendo con España , la primera colonia inglesa en las Américas fue fundada en 1585 por el explorador Walter Raleigh en Virginia y se llamó Roanoke . La colonia de Roanoke fracasó y es conocida como la colonia perdida después de que fue encontrada abandonada al regresar el barco de suministros que llegó tarde. [66] Con la Compañía de las Indias Orientales , Inglaterra también compitió con los holandeses y franceses en el este. Durante el período isabelino , Inglaterra estaba en guerra con España. Una armadazarpó de España en 1588 como parte de un plan más amplio para invadir Inglaterra y restablecer una monarquía católica. El plan se vio frustrado por la mala coordinación, el clima tormentoso y los exitosos ataques de hostigamiento de una flota inglesa al mando de Lord Howard de Effingham . Este fracaso no acabó con la amenaza: España lanzó dos armadas más, en 1596 y 1597 , pero ambas fueron rechazadas por las tormentas. La estructura política de la isla cambió en 1603, cuando el rey de Escocia , Jacobo VI , un reino que había sido durante mucho tiempo un rival de los intereses ingleses, heredó el trono de Inglaterra como Jacobo I , creando así una unión personal . [67] [68]Se autodenominó Rey de Gran Bretaña , aunque esto no tenía base en la ley inglesa. [69] Bajo los auspicios del Rey Jacobo VI y yo, la Versión Autorizada del Rey Jacobo de la Santa Biblia se publicó en 1611. Fue la versión estándar de la Biblia leída por la mayoría de los cristianos protestantes durante cuatrocientos años hasta que se produjeron revisiones modernas en el siglo 20.
Sobre la base de posiciones políticas, religiosas y sociales conflictivas, la Guerra Civil inglesa se libró entre los partidarios del Parlamento y los del rey Carlos I , conocidos coloquialmente como Roundheads y Cavaliers respectivamente. Esta fue una parte entretejida de las más amplias y multifacéticas Guerras de los Tres Reinos , que involucraron a Escocia e Irlanda . Los parlamentarios salieron victoriosos, Carlos I fue ejecutado y el reino fue reemplazado por la Commonwealth . Líder de las fuerzas del Parlamento, Oliver Cromwell se declaró Lord Protectoren 1653; Siguió un período de gobierno personal . [70] Después de la muerte de Cromwell y la renuncia de su hijo Richard como Lord Protector, Carlos II fue invitado a regresar como monarca en 1660, en un movimiento llamado Restauración . Con la reapertura de los teatros, las bellas artes, la literatura y las artes escénicas florecieron a lo largo de la Restauración del "Feliz Monarca" Carlos II . [71] Después de la Revolución Gloriosa de 1688, se estableció constitucionalmente que el Rey y el Parlamento deberían gobernar juntos, aunque el Parlamento tendría el poder real. Esto fue establecido con la Declaración de Derechos.en 1689. Entre los estatutos se establecieron que la ley sólo podía ser promulgada por el Parlamento y no podía ser suspendida por el Rey, también que el Rey no podía imponer impuestos o formar un ejército sin la aprobación previa del Parlamento. [72] También desde ese momento, ningún monarca británico ha entrado en la Cámara de los Comunes cuando está sentado, lo que se conmemora anualmente en la Apertura del Parlamento del Estado por el monarca británico cuando las puertas de la Cámara de los Comunes se cierran de golpe en la cara de el mensajero del monarca, que simboliza los derechos del Parlamento y su independencia del monarca. [73] [74] Con la fundación de la Royal Society en 1660, la ciencia se animó mucho.
En 1666, el Gran Incendio de Londres destruyó la ciudad de Londres, pero fue reconstruida poco después [75] con muchos edificios importantes diseñados por Sir Christopher Wren . En el Parlamento habían surgido dos facciones: los conservadores y los whigs . Aunque los conservadores inicialmente apoyaron al rey católico Jacobo II , algunos de ellos, junto con los Whigs, durante la Revolución de 1688 invitaron al príncipe holandés Guillermo de Orange a derrotar a Jacobo y finalmente a convertirse en Guillermo III de Inglaterra . Algunos ingleses, especialmente en el norte, eran jacobitas y continuaron apoyando a James y sus hijos. Bajo la dinastía StuartInglaterra se expandió en comercio, finanzas y prosperidad. Gran Bretaña desarrolló la flota mercante más grande de Europa. [76] Después de que los parlamentos de Inglaterra y Escocia acordaron, [77] los dos países se unieron en unión política , para crear el Reino de Gran Bretaña en 1707. [67] Para dar cabida a la unión, instituciones como la ley y las iglesias nacionales de cada uno permaneció separado. [78]
Tardío moderno y contemporáneo
Bajo el recién formado Reino de Gran Bretaña, la producción de la Royal Society y otras iniciativas inglesas se combinaron con la Ilustración escocesa para crear innovaciones en ciencia e ingeniería, mientras que el enorme crecimiento en el comercio exterior británico protegido por la Royal Navy allanó el camino para el establecimiento. del Imperio Británico . A nivel nacional impulsó la Revolución Industrial , un período de profundo cambio en las condiciones socioeconómicas y culturales de Inglaterra, que dio como resultado la agricultura, la manufactura, la ingeniería y la minería industrializadas, así como nuevas y pioneras redes de carreteras, ferrocarriles y agua para facilitar su expansión y desarrollo. .[79] La apertura del canal Bridgewater del noroeste de Inglaterraen 1761 marcó el comienzo de la era del canal en Gran Bretaña . [80] [81] En 1825, se abrió al públicoel primer ferrocarril de pasajeros transportado por locomotoras de vapor permanente del mundo, el ferrocarril de Stockton y Darlington . [80]
Durante la Revolución Industrial, muchos trabajadores se trasladaron del campo de Inglaterra a áreas industriales urbanas nuevas y en expansión para trabajar en fábricas, por ejemplo en Birmingham y Manchester , denominadas "Taller del mundo" y "Ciudad almacén", respectivamente. [83] [84] Manchester fue la primera ciudad industrial del mundo. [85] Inglaterra mantuvo una relativa estabilidad durante la Revolución Francesa ; William Pitt el Joven fue primer ministro británico durante el reinado de Jorge III . La Regencia de Jorge IV se destaca por su elegancia y logros en las bellas artes y la arquitectura. [86] Durante elGuerras napoleónicas , Napoleón planeaba invadir desde el sureste . Sin embargo, esto no se manifestó y las fuerzas napoleónicas fueron derrotadas por los británicos: en el mar por Lord Nelson y en tierra por el Duque de Wellington . La gran victoria en la batalla de Trafalgar confirmó la supremacía naval que Gran Bretaña había establecido durante el curso del siglo XVIII. [87] Las Guerras Napoleónicas fomentaron un concepto de lo británico y un pueblo británico nacional unido , compartido con los ingleses, escoceses y galeses. [88]
Londres se convirtió en el área metropolitana más grande y poblada del mundo durante la era victoriana , y el comercio dentro del Imperio Británico, así como la posición del ejército y la marina británicos, era prestigioso. [89] Tecnológicamente, esta era vio muchas innovaciones que resultaron clave para el poder y la prosperidad del Reino Unido. [90] La agitación política en casa por parte de radicales como los cartistas y las sufragistas permitió la reforma legislativa y el sufragio universal . [91] Samuel Hynes describió la era eduardiana como un "tiempo de ocio en el que las mujeres usaban sombreros de cuadrosy no votó, cuando los ricos no se avergonzaban de vivir de manera llamativa y el sol nunca se ponía en la bandera británica ". [92]
Los cambios de poder en el centro-este de Europa llevaron a la Primera Guerra Mundial; cientos de miles de soldados ingleses murieron luchando por el Reino Unido como parte de los Aliados . [nb 3] Dos décadas más tarde, en la Segunda Guerra Mundial , el Reino Unido volvió a ser uno de los Aliados . Al final de la Phoney War , Winston Churchill se convirtió en el primer ministro durante la guerra. Los desarrollos en la tecnología de la guerra vieron muchas ciudades dañadas por los ataques aéreos durante el Blitz . Después de la guerra, el Imperio Británico experimentó una rápida descolonización y hubo una aceleración de las innovaciones tecnológicas; Los automóviles se convirtieron en el principal medio de transporte y Frank WhittleEl desarrollo del motor a reacción condujo a viajes aéreos más amplios . [94] Los patrones residenciales fueron alterados en Inglaterra por el automovilismo privado y por la creación del Servicio Nacional de Salud (NHS) en 1948. El NHS del Reino Unido proporcionó atención médica financiada con fondos públicos a todos los residentes permanentes del Reino Unido de forma gratuita en el momento de necesidad, pagando por de impuestos generales. Combinados, estos impulsaron la reforma del gobierno local en Inglaterra a mediados del siglo XX. [95] [96]
Desde el siglo XX ha habido un importante movimiento de población a Inglaterra, principalmente de otras partes de las Islas Británicas , pero también de la Commonwealth , en particular del subcontinente indio . [97] Desde la década de 1970 ha habido un gran alejamiento de la fabricación y un énfasis creciente en la industria de servicios . [98] Como parte del Reino Unido, la zona se unió a una iniciativa de mercado común denominada Comunidad Económica Europea que se convirtió en la Unión Europea . Desde finales del siglo XX, la administración del Reino Unido se ha orientado haciadescentralización de la gobernanza en Escocia, Gales e Irlanda del Norte. [99] Inglaterra y Gales sigue existiendo como jurisdicción dentro del Reino Unido. [100] La devolución ha estimulado un mayor énfasis en una identidad y un patriotismo más específicos del inglés. [101] [102] No hay un gobierno inglés descentralizado, pero un intento de crear un sistema similar sobre una base subregional fue rechazado por referéndum. [103]
Gobernancia
Política
Inglaterra es parte del Reino Unido, una monarquía constitucional con un sistema parlamentario . [104] No ha habido un gobierno de Inglaterra desde 1707, cuando las Actas de Unión de 1707 , que pusieron en vigor los términos del Tratado de Unión , unieron a Inglaterra y Escocia para formar el Reino de Gran Bretaña . [77] Antes de la unión, Inglaterra estaba gobernada por su monarca y el Parlamento de Inglaterra . Hoy Inglaterra está gobernada directamente por el Parlamento del Reino Unido , aunque otros países del Reino Unido hangobiernos delegados . [105] En la Cámara de los Comunes, que es la cámara baja del Parlamento británico con sede en el Palacio de Westminster , hay 532 miembros del Parlamento (MP) para distritos electorales en Inglaterra, de un total de 650. [106] A partir de las elecciones generales del Reino Unido de 2019 , Inglaterra está representada por 345 diputados del Partido Conservador , 179 del Partido Laborista , siete de los Demócratas Liberales , uno del Partido Verde y la presidenta de la Cámara , Lindsay Hoyle. .
Desde la devolución , en la que otros países del Reino Unido (Escocia, Gales e Irlanda del Norte ) tienen cada uno su propio parlamento o asambleas delegadas para asuntos locales, se ha debatido cómo contrarrestar esto en Inglaterra. Originalmente se planeó que varias regiones de Inglaterra serían transferidas, pero luego del rechazo de la propuesta por parte del noreste en un referéndum de 2004 , esto no se ha llevado a cabo. [103]
Un tema importante es la cuestión de West Lothian , en la que los parlamentarios de Escocia y Gales pueden votar sobre la legislación que afecta solo a Inglaterra, mientras que los parlamentarios ingleses no tienen un derecho equivalente a legislar sobre asuntos transferidos. [107] Esto, cuando se sitúa en el contexto de que Inglaterra es el único país del Reino Unido que no dispone de tratamiento gratuito contra el cáncer, recetas médicas, atención residencial para ancianos y tasas universitarias complementarias gratuitas , [108] ha dado lugar a un aumento constante en el nacionalismo inglés . [109] Algunos han sugerido la creación de un parlamento inglés descentralizado , [110]mientras que otros han propuesto simplemente limitar la votación sobre la legislación que solo afecta a Inglaterra a los diputados ingleses. [111]
Ley
El sistema legal de derecho inglés , desarrollado a lo largo de los siglos, es la base de los sistemas legales del common law [112] utilizados en la mayoría de los países de la Commonwealth [113] y los Estados Unidos (excepto Luisiana ). A pesar de ser ahora parte del Reino Unido, el sistema legal de los Tribunales de Inglaterra y Gales continuó, bajo el Tratado de Unión , como un sistema legal separado del usado en Escocia. La esencia general del derecho inglés es que lo hacen los jueces que actúan en los tribunales, aplicando su sentido común y conocimiento de los precedentes legales - stare decisis - a los hechos que tienen ante sí. [114]
El sistema judicial está dirigido por los Tribunales Superiores de Inglaterra y Gales, que constan del Tribunal de Apelación , el Tribunal Superior de Justicia para los casos civiles y el Tribunal de la Corona para los casos penales. [115] El Tribunal Supremo del Reino Unido es el tribunal más alto para casos penales y civiles en Inglaterra y Gales . Fue creado en 2009 después de cambios constitucionales, asumiendo las funciones judiciales de la Cámara de los Lores . [116] Una decisión de la Corte Suprema es vinculante para todos los demás tribunales de la jerarquía, que deben seguir sus instrucciones. [117]
El Secretario de Estado de Justicia es el ministro responsable ante el Parlamento del poder judicial , el sistema judicial y las prisiones y la libertad condicional en Inglaterra. [118] La delincuencia aumentó entre 1981 y 1995, pero se redujo en un 42% en el período 1995-2006. [119] La población carcelaria se duplicó durante el mismo período, lo que le dio una de las tasas de encarcelamiento más altas de Europa Occidental con 147 por 100.000. [120] El Servicio Penitenciario de Su Majestad , que depende del Ministerio de Justicia , administra la mayoría de las cárceles y alberga a más de 85.000 convictos. [121]
Regiones, condados y distritos
Las subdivisiones de Inglaterra constan de hasta cuatro niveles de división subnacional controlados a través de una variedad de tipos de entidades administrativas creadas para los propósitos del gobierno local . El nivel más alto de gobierno local fueron las nueve regiones de Inglaterra : noreste , noroeste , Yorkshire y Humber , East Midlands , West Midlands , East , South East , South West y Londres. Estos fueron creados en 1994 como Oficinas de Gobierno, utilizado por el gobierno del Reino Unido para implementar una amplia gama de políticas y programas a nivel regional, pero no hay órganos electos a este nivel, excepto en Londres, y en 2011 se abolieron las oficinas del gobierno regional. [122]
Después de que la devolución comenzó a tener lugar en otras partes del Reino Unido, se planeó que los referendos para las regiones de Inglaterra se llevaran a cabo para sus propias asambleas regionales elegidas como contrapeso. Londres aceptó en 1998: la Asamblea de Londres se creó dos años después. Sin embargo, cuando la propuesta fue rechazada por el referéndum de devolución de 2004 del noreste de Inglaterra en el noreste, se cancelaron más referendos. [103] Las asambleas regionales fuera de Londres se abolieron en 2010 y sus funciones se transfirieron a las respectivas Agencias de Desarrollo Regional y un nuevo sistema de juntas de líderes de las autoridades locales .[123]
Por debajo del nivel regional, toda Inglaterra está dividida en 48 condados ceremoniales . [124] Estos se utilizan principalmente como un marco de referencia geográfico y se han desarrollado gradualmente desde la Edad Media , y algunos se establecieron tan recientemente como 1974. [125] Cada uno tiene un Lord Teniente y un Alto Sheriff ; estos mensajes se utilizan para representar al monarca británico a nivel local. [124] Fuera del Gran Londres y las Islas Sorlingas , Inglaterra también está dividida en 83 condados metropolitanos y no metropolitanos ; Estos corresponden a áreas utilizadas para fines de gobierno local.[126] y puede consistir en un solo distrito o dividirse en varios.
Hay seis condados metropolitanos basados en las áreas más urbanizadas, que no tienen consejos de condado. [126] En estas áreas, las autoridades principales son los consejos de las subdivisiones, los distritos metropolitanos . En otros lugares, 27 condados "comarcales" no metropolitanos tienen un consejo de condado y están divididos en distritos, cada uno con un consejo de distrito. Por lo general, aunque no siempre, se encuentran en áreas más rurales. Los restantes condados no metropolitanos pertenecen a un solo distrito y, por lo general, corresponden a ciudades grandes o condados escasamente poblados; se les conoce como autoridades unitarias . Greater London tiene un sistema diferente para el gobierno local, con 32Distritos de Londres , además de la ciudad de Londres que cubre un área pequeña en el centro regido por la City of London Corporation . [127] En el nivel más localizado, gran parte de Inglaterra está dividida en parroquias civiles con consejos ; en el Gran Londres, solo uno, Queen's Park , existe desde 2014 [update]después de que fueron abolidos en 1965 hasta que la legislación permitió su recreación en 2007.
Geografía
Paisaje y ríos
Geográficamente, Inglaterra incluye los dos tercios central y sur de la isla de Gran Bretaña, además de islas cercanas a la costa como la Isla de Wight y las Islas Sorlingas . Limita con otros dos países del Reino Unido: al norte con Escocia y al oeste con Gales. Inglaterra está más cerca que cualquier otra parte de Gran Bretaña continental del continente europeo. Está separada de Francia ( Hauts-de-France ) por una brecha marítima de 21 millas (34 km) [128] , aunque los dos países están conectados por el Túnel del Canal de la Mancha cerca de Folkestone . [129] Inglaterra también tiene costas en el Mar de Irlanda., Mar del Norte y Océano Atlántico.
Los puertos de Londres, Liverpool y Newcastle se encuentran en los ríos de marea Támesis , Mersey y Tyne, respectivamente. A 220 millas (350 km), el Severn es el río más largo que atraviesa Inglaterra. [130] Desemboca en el Canal de Bristol y es notable por su Severn Bore (un taladro de marea ), que puede alcanzar los 2 metros (6,6 pies) de altura. [131] Sin embargo, el río más largo de Inglaterra es el Támesis, que tiene 346 km (215 millas) de longitud. [132]
Hay muchos lagos en Inglaterra ; el más grande es Windermere , dentro del apropiadamente llamado Lake District . [133] La mayor parte del paisaje de Inglaterra se compone de colinas bajas y llanuras, con tierras altas y montañosas en el norte y el oeste del país. Las tierras altas del norte incluyen los Peninos , una cadena de tierras altas que divide el este y el oeste, las montañas de Lake District en Cumbria y las colinas de Cheviot , que se extienden a ambos lados de la frontera entre Inglaterra y Escocia. El punto más alto de Inglaterra, con 978 metros (3.209 pies), es Scafell Pike en el Distrito de los Lagos. [133] Las colinas de Shropshire están cerca de Gales, mientras que Dartmoory Exmoor son dos áreas de tierras altas en el suroeste del país. La línea divisoria aproximada entre los tipos de terreno suele estar indicada por la línea Tees-Exe . [134]
En términos geológicos, los Peninos, conocidos como la "columna vertebral de Inglaterra", son la cadena montañosa más antigua del país, originada desde el final de la Era Paleozoica hace unos 300 millones de años. [135] Su composición geológica incluye, entre otros, arenisca y piedra caliza , y también carbón. Hay paisajes kársticos en áreas de calcita como partes de Yorkshire y Derbyshire . El paisaje de los Peninos es un páramo alto en las tierras altas, marcado por los fértiles valles de los ríos de la región. Contienen dos parques nacionales , Yorkshire Dales y Peak District.. En West Country , Dartmoor y Exmoor de Southwest Peninsula incluyen páramos de tierras altas sostenidos por granito y disfrutan de un clima templado ; ambos son parques nacionales. [136]
Las tierras bajas del Inglés se encuentran en las regiones del centro y sur del país, que consiste en colinas verdes, incluyendo el Cotswold Hills , Chiltern Hills , Norte y Sur Downs ; donde se encuentran con el mar forman exposiciones de rocas blancas como los acantilados de Dover . Esto también incluye llanuras relativamente planas como Salisbury Plain , Somerset Levels , South Coast Plain y The Fens .
Clima
Inglaterra tiene un clima marítimo templado : es templado con temperaturas no mucho más bajas de 0 ° C (32 ° F) en invierno y no mucho más altas de 32 ° C (90 ° F) en verano. [137] El clima es húmedo con relativa frecuencia y es variable. Los meses más fríos son enero y febrero, este último especialmente en la costa inglesa , mientras que julio es normalmente el mes más cálido. Los meses con clima templado a cálido son mayo, junio, septiembre y octubre. [137] Las precipitaciones se distribuyen de manera bastante uniforme a lo largo del año.
Influencias importantes en el clima de Inglaterra son su proximidad al Océano Atlántico , su latitud norte y el calentamiento del mar por la Corriente del Golfo . [137] Las precipitaciones son más altas en el oeste y partes del Distrito de los Lagos reciben más lluvia que en cualquier otro lugar del país. [137] Desde que comenzaron los registros meteorológicos, la temperatura más alta registrada fue de 38,7 ° C (101,7 ° F) el 25 de julio de 2019 en el Jardín Botánico de Cambridge , [138] mientras que la más baja fue de −26,1 ° C (−15,0 ° F) en 10 de enero de 1982 en Edgmond , Shropshire. [139]
Naturaleza y vida salvaje
La fauna de Inglaterra es similar a la de otras áreas de las Islas Británicas con una amplia gama de vida de vertebrados e invertebrados en una amplia gama de hábitats. [141]
Las reservas naturales nacionales de Inglaterra están designadas por Natural England como lugares clave para la vida silvestre y las características naturales de Inglaterra. Fueron establecidos para proteger las áreas de hábitat más importantes y de formaciones geológicas. Los NNR son administrados en nombre de la nación, muchos por la propia Inglaterra natural, pero también por organizaciones no gubernamentales, incluidos los miembros de la asociación The Wildlife Trusts , el National Trust y la Royal Society for the Protection of Birds . Hay 229 NNR en Inglaterra que cubren 939 kilómetros cuadrados (363 millas cuadradas). A menudo contienen especies raras o especies de plantas y animales de importancia nacional. [142]
La Agencia de Medio Ambiente es un organismo público no departamental , establecido en 1995 y patrocinado por el Departamento de Medio Ambiente, Alimentación y Asuntos Rurales con responsabilidades relacionadas con la protección y mejora del medio ambiente en Inglaterra. [143] El Secretario de Estado de Medio Ambiente, Alimentación y Asuntos Rurales es el ministro responsable de la protección del medio ambiente, la agricultura, la pesca y las comunidades rurales de Inglaterra. [144]
Inglaterra tiene un clima oceánico templado en la mayoría de las áreas, sin extremos de frío o calor, pero tiene algunas áreas pequeñas de áreas subárticas y más cálidas en el suroeste . Hacia el norte de Inglaterra, el clima se vuelve más frío y la mayoría de las montañas y colinas altas de Inglaterra se encuentran aquí y tienen un gran impacto en el clima y, por lo tanto, en la fauna local de las áreas. Los bosques caducifolios son comunes en toda Inglaterra y proporcionan un gran hábitat para gran parte de la vida silvestre de Inglaterra, pero estos dan paso en las áreas del norte y las tierras altas de Inglaterra a las coníferas.bosques (principalmente plantaciones) que también benefician a ciertas formas de vida silvestre. Algunas especies se han adaptado al entorno urbano expandido, en particular el zorro rojo , que es el mamífero urbano más exitoso después de la rata marrón , y otros animales como la paloma torcaz común , que prosperan en áreas urbanas y suburbanas. [145]
Las ardillas grises introducidas desde el este de América han forzado el declive de la ardilla roja nativa debido a la competencia. Las ardillas rojas están ahora confinadas a las tierras altas y las áreas boscosas de coníferas de Inglaterra, principalmente en el norte, suroeste y la Isla de Wight. El clima de Inglaterra es muy adecuado para los lagomorfos y el país tiene conejos y liebres marrones que se introdujeron en la época romana. [146] [147] Las liebres de montaña que son indígenas ahora se han reintroducido en Derbyshire. La fauna de Inglaterra tiene que hacer frente a temperaturas y condiciones variables, aunque no extremas, plantean desafíos potenciales y medidas de adaptación. Sin embargo, la fauna inglesa ha tenido que hacer frente a la industrialización, con densidades de población humana entre las más altas de Europa.y agricultura intensiva , pero como Inglaterra es una nación desarrollada, la vida silvestre y el campo han entrado más en la mentalidad inglesa y el país es muy consciente de la preservación de la vida silvestre, el medio ambiente y el campo. [148]
Grandes conurbaciones
El área urbanizada del Gran Londres es, con mucho, el área urbana más grande de Inglaterra [149] y una de las ciudades más concurridas del mundo. Se considera una ciudad global y tiene una población más grande que cualquier otro país del Reino Unido además de Inglaterra. [149] Otras áreas urbanas de tamaño e influencia considerables tienden a estar en el norte de Inglaterra o en las Midlands inglesas . [149] Hay 50 asentamientos que han designado el estatus de ciudad en Inglaterra , mientras que el Reino Unido tiene 66.
Si bien muchas ciudades de Inglaterra son bastante grandes, como Birmingham , Sheffield , Manchester , Liverpool , Leeds , Newcastle , Bradford , Nottingham , el tamaño de la población no es un requisito previo para el estatus de ciudad. [150] Tradicionalmente, el estatus se otorgaba a pueblos con catedrales diocesanas , por lo que hay ciudades más pequeñas como Wells , Ely , Ripon , Truro y Chichester .
| Conurbaciones más grandes del censo de 2011 de Inglaterra [149] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rango | Conurbación | Música pop. | Liquidación principal
| ||||||
| 1 | Gran Londres | 9,787,426 | Londres | ||||||
| 2 | Gran Manchester | 2,553,379 | Manchester | ||||||
| 3 | West Midlands | 2,440,986 | Birmingham | ||||||
| 4 | West Yorkshire | 1,777,934 | Leeds | ||||||
| 5 | Liverpool | 864,122 | Liverpool | ||||||
| 6 | South Hampshire | 855,569 | Southampton | ||||||
| 7 | Tyneside | 774,891 | Newcastle upon Tyne | ||||||
| 8 | Nottingham | 729,977 | Nottingham | ||||||
| 9 | Sheffield | 685,368 | Sheffield | ||||||
| 10 | Bristol | 617,280 | Bristol | ||||||
Economía
England's economy is one of the largest and most dynamic in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £28,100. Her Majesty's Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance policy and economic policy.[153] Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure.[154] The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014[update] the basic rate of personal tax is 20% on taxable income up to £31,865 above the personal tax-free allowance (normally £10,000), and 40% on any additional earnings above that amount.[155]
The economy of England is the largest part of the UK's economy,[156] which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical[157] and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England's financial centre, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations being based there.[158] London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014[update] is the second largest in the world.[159] Manchester is the largest financial and professional services sector outside London and is the mid tier private equity capital of Europe as well as one of the growing technology hubs of Europe.[160]
The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the government of England, since 1946 it has been a state-owned institution.[161] The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.[162]
England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy.[98] Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign-owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.[163] The creative industries accounted for 7 per cent GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6 per cent per annum between 1997 and 2005.[164]
Most of the UK's £30 billion[165] aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The global market opportunity for UK aerospace manufacturers over the next two decades is estimated at £3.5 trillion.[166] GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch.[167]
BAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. It also manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.[167]
Rolls-Royce PLC is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls-Royce employees in the UK. Rolls-Royce also produces low-emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry.[167][168] The pharmaceutical industry plays an important role in the economy, and the UK has the third-highest share of global pharmaceutical R&D expenditures.[169][170]
Much of the UK's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellite Technology, is also part of Astrium.[167] Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single-stage-to-orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined-cycle, air-breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham. The UK space industry was worth £9.1bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people. It is growing at a rate of 7.5 per cent annually, according to its umbrella organisation, the UK Space Agency. In 2013, the British Government pledged £60 million to the Skylon project: this investment will provide support at a "crucial stage" to allow a full-scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built.
Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing 60% of food needs with only 2% of the labour force.[171] Two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops.[172] The main crops that are grown are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, sugar beets. England retains a significant, though much reduced fishing industry. Its fleets bring home fish of every kind, ranging from sole to herring. It is also rich in natural resources including coal, petroleum, natural gas, tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum, lead, and silica.[173]
Science and technology
Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, James Prescott Joule, John Dalton, Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson, James Chadwick, Charles Babbage, George Boole, Alan Turing, Tim Berners-Lee, Paul Dirac, Stephen Hawking, Peter Higgs, Roger Penrose, John Horton Conway, Thomas Bayes, Arthur Cayley, G. H. Hardy, Oliver Heaviside, Andrew Wiles, Edward Jenner, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Joseph Priestley, Thomas Young, Christopher Wren and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668.[174]
England was a leading centre of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century.[175] As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering.[176] Thomas Newcomen's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution.[177]
The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history.[178] The physician Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history."[179][180][181]
Inventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner,[183] the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat's eye" road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.[184]
The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge,[185] is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. Founded on 28 November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as "The Royal Society".[185] It is the oldest national scientific institution in the world.[186] The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, recognising excellence in science, supporting outstanding science, providing scientific advice for policy, fostering international and global co-operation, education and public engagement.[187]
The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at a variety of locations, including Gresham College in London. They were influenced by the "new science", as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards.[188] A group known as "The Philosophical Society of Oxford" was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library.[189] After the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College.[190] It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society.[189]
Scientific research and development remains important in the universities of England, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[191] Between 2004 and 2008 the United Kingdom produced 7 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8 per cent share of scientific citations, the third and second-highest in the world (after the United States and China, respectively).[192] Scientific journals produced in the United Kingdom include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.[193]
Transport
The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. The department is run by the Secretary of State for Transport.
England has a dense and modern transportation infrastructure. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle[194] (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo-Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km).[194] Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.[194]
Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include Arriva, FirstGroup, Go-Ahead Group, National Express, Rotala and Stagecoach Group. The red double-decker buses in London have become a symbol of England.
National Cycle Route offers cycling routes nationally. There is a rapid transit network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and Sunderland.[195] There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and West Midlands Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.[195]
Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain from 2023. The Office of Rail and Road is responsible for the economic and safety regulation of England's railways.[196]
Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825.[197] Much of Britain's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.
Crossrail, under construction in London, is Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost.[198] High Speed 2, a new high-speed north–south railway line, projected in 2015 to cost £56 billion is to start being built in 2020.[199]
England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is Heathrow, which is the world's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers.[200] Other large airports include Gatwick, Manchester, Stansted, Luton and Birmingham.[201]
By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including from Liverpool to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and Hull to the Netherlands and Belgium.[202] There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal & River Trust,[202] however, water transport is very limited. The River Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom's three major ports.[202]
Energy
Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh (193.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent) in 2014.[205] This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh (3.00 tonnes of oil equivalent) compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh (1.85 tonnes of oil equivalent).[206] Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42GW on average[207] (301.7TWh over the year) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0TWh.[208]
Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply.[204][209] Wind power contributed 15% of UK electricity generation in 2017.[210][211]
The Climate Change Act 2008 was passed in Parliament with an overwhelming majority across political parties. It sets out emission reduction targets that the UK must comply with legally. It represents the first global legally binding climate change mitigation target set by a country.[212] UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, whilst meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs.[213]
The current energy policy is the responsibility of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy and Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.[214] The Minister of State for Business, Energy and Clean Growth is responsible for green finance, climate science and innovation, and low carbon generation.[215] United Kingdom is ranked 4 out of 180 countries in the Environmental Performance Index.[216] A law has been passed that UK greenhouse gas emissions will be net zero by 2050.[217]
Tourism
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.[218]
The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is a charity which also maintains multiple sites. Of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 17 are in England.[219]
Some of the best known of these include Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Palace of Westminster, Roman Baths, City of Bath, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and more recently the English Lake District. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs for a total of 73 miles in northern England.[220]
The Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility for tourism, arts and culture, cultural property, heritage and historic environments, libraries, and museums and galleries.[221] The Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Arts, Heritage and Tourism is the minister with responsibility over tourism in England.[222]
A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in England to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. The scheme was the brainchild of politician William Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866. It was formally established by the Royal Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. In 2011 there were around 1,600 museums in England.[223] Entry to most state-supported museums and galleries is free unlike in other countries.[224]
London is one of the world's most visited cities, regularly taking the top five most visited cities in Europe.[225][226] It is largely considered a global centre of finance, arts and culture.[227]
Healthcare
National Health England (NHS England) is the publicly funded healthcare system responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge.[228] The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments,[229] and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.[230]
The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS—£98.6 billion was spent in 2008–2009.[231] In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions.[232]
When purchasing drugs, the NHS has significant market power that, based on its own assessment of the fair value of the drugs, influences the global price, typically keeping prices lower.[233] Several other countries either copy the UK's model or directly rely on Britain's assessments for their own decisions on state-financed drug reimbursements.[234] Regulatory bodies such as the General Medical Council and the Nursing and Midwifery Council are organised on a UK-wide basis, as are non-governmental bodies such as the Royal Colleges.
The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.[235] The South of England has a higher life expectancy than the North, however, regional differences do seem to be slowly narrowing: between 1991–1993 and 2012–2014, life expectancy in the North East increased by 6.0 years and in the North West by 5.8 years, the fastest increase in any region outside London, and the gap between life expectancy in the North East and South East is now 2.5 years, down from 2.9 in 1993.[235]
Demography
Population
With over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84% of the combined total.[12]: 12 [236] England taken as a unit and measured against international states would be the 25th largest country by population in the world.[237]
The English people are British people.[238] Some genetic evidence suggests that 75–95% descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5% contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element.[239][240][241] However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half.[242][243] Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic,[244] Roman, Anglo-Saxon,[245] Viking (North Germanic),[246] Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.[nb 4] Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.[251][252]
In 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About 10% lived in urban areas.[253] By 1801, the population was 8.3 million, and by 1901 30.5 million.[254] Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom.[238] There has been significant Irish migration.[255] The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50%, including Germans[256] and Poles.[238]
Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6% of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.[238][256] About 0.7% of people are Chinese.[238][256] 2.90% of the population are black, from Africa and the Caribbean, especially former British colonies.[238][256] In 2007, 22% of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families,[257] and in 2011 that figure was 26.5%.[258] About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration.[259] Debate over immigration is politically prominent;[260] 80% of respondents in a 2009 Home Office poll wanted to cap it.[261] The ONS has projected that the population will grow by nine million between 2014 and 2039.[262]
England contains one indigenous national minority, the Cornish people, recognised by the UK government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2014.[263]
Language
| Language | Native speakers
(thousands) [264] |
|---|---|
| English | 46,937 |
| Polish | 529 |
| Punjabi | 272 |
| Urdu | 266 |
| Bengali | 216 |
| Gujarati | 212 |
| Arabic | 152 |
| French | 145 |
| Portuguese | 131 |
| Welsh | 8 |
| Cornish | 0.6 |
| Other | 2,267 |
| Population | 51,006 |
As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98% of the population.[265] It is an Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family.[266] After the Norman conquest, the Old English language, brought to Britain by the Anglo-Saxon settlers, was confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy.
By the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins.[267] Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world's unofficial lingua franca.[268]
English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England,[269] but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.
As well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived,[270][271] and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.[272] It is spoken by 0.1% of people in Cornwall,[273] and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.[274][275]
When the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh-speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century,[276] and by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later.[277]
State schools teach students a second language or third language from the ages of seven, usually French, German, Spanish, Latin, Greek.[278] Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home,[257] the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.[279]
Religion
In the 2011 census, 59.4% of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7% answered that they had no religion, 5% specified that they were Muslim, while 3.7% of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2% did not give an answer.[280] Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is the Church of England,[281] which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his marriage to the aunt of the king of Spain. The church regards itself as both Catholic and Protestant.[282]
There are High Church and Low Church traditions and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo-Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head.[283] Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.
The 2nd-largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English).[284] There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.
A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley.[285] It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall.[286] There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.[287]
The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination.[288] There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best-known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070.[289] They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.[289]
Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5% of the population in England.[290] Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8% combined,[290] introduced from India and South East Asia.[290]
A small minority of the population practise ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England,[nb 5] and 3,448 in Wales,[nb 5] including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.[nb 6]
24.7% of people in England declared no religion in 2011, compared with 14.6% in 2001. These figures are slightly lower than the combined figures for England and Wales as Wales has a higher level of irreligion than England.[291] Norwich had the highest such proportion at 42.5%, followed closely by Brighton and Hove at 42.4%.
Education
The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education.[292] State-run and state-funded schools are attended by approximately 93% of English schoolchildren.[293] Education is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education.[294]
Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. State-funded schools are obliged by law to teach the National Curriculum; basic areas of learning include English literature, English language, mathematics, science, art & design, citizenship, history, geography, religious education, design & technology, computing, ancient & modern languages, music, and physical education.[295]
More than 90% of English schools require students to wear uniforms.[296] School uniforms are defined by individual schools, within the constraint that uniform regulations must not discriminate on the grounds of sex, race, disability, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, religion or belief. Schools may choose to permit trousers for girls or religious dress.[297]
The Programme for International Student Assessment coordinated by the OECD currently ranks the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 13th in the world in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average British student scoring 503.7, compared with the OECD average of 493, ahead of the United States and most of Europe.[298]
Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, there are selective intake grammar schools to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven-plus exam. Around 7.2 per cent of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources.[299] Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.[300]
After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university. Further education (FE) covers a wide curriculum of study and apprenticeships, including T-levels, BTEC, NVQ and others. Tertiary colleges provide both academic and vocational courses.[301]
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England.[302] Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs.[nb 7] The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years.[303]
England's universities include some of the highest-ranked universities in the world; University of Cambridge, University of Oxford, Imperial College London, University College London and King's College London are all ranked in the global top 30 in the 2018 QS World University Rankings.[304] The London School of Economics has been described as the world's leading social science institution for both teaching and research.[305] The London Business School is considered one of the world's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times.[306] Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2:1), lower second class (2:2), third (3rd), and unclassified.[303]
The King's School, Canterbury and King's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English-speaking world.[307] Many of England's most well-known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee-paying institutions.[308]
Culture
Architecture
Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg.[309] With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts.[310] It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England.[310] Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.[310]
Early Medieval architecture's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno–Saxon monasticism,[311][312] to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best-known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.[313]
Throughout the Plantagenet era, an English Gothic architecture flourished, with prime examples including the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.[313] Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th-century Tudor style; the four-centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity synthesised with Christianity appeared, the English Baroque style of architect Christopher Wren being particularly championed.[314]
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched. In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.[nb 8]
Gardens
Landscape gardening, as developed by Capability Brown, set an international trend for the English garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape.[317]
By the end of the 18th century, the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.[318] The English landscape garden was centred on the English country house and manor houses.[317]
English Heritage and the National Trust preserve great gardens and landscape parks throughout the country.[319] The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.[320]
Folklore
English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk-customs are thought to be ancient, such as the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith,[321] others date from after the Norman invasion. The legends featuring Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood, and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham, are among the best-known of these.[322]
During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore and developed into the Arthurian myth.[323][324][325] These were derived from Anglo-Norman, Welsh and French sources,[324] featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).[nb 9] Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.
Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch.[327] On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle-kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese-rolling at Cooper's Hill.[328] There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.[329]
Cuisine
Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.[332] During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant's best restaurant in the world charts.[333] An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.[334]
Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy.[335] Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms and eggs).[336] Various meat pies are consumed, such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (usually eaten cold)[335] and the Cornish pasty.
Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well-known stew originating in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester, Wensleydale, Double Gloucester and Blue Stilton. Many Anglo-Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created, such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick – all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits.
Common non-alcoholic drinks include tea, the popularity of which was increased by Catherine of Braganza,[337] and coffee; frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wine, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout and brown ale.[338]
Visual arts
The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags.[339] With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art such as statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough.[340] During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter.[341] Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.[342]
The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this.[342] Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson.[342] The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed, with Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds becoming two of England's most treasured artists.[342]
In the 19th century, Constable and Turner were major landscape artists. The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, led by artists such as Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais, revived the Early Renaissance style with their vivid and detailed style.[342] Prominent amongst 20th-century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general.[343] More recent painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a then-living artist.[344] The Royal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts and culture.[345]
Literature, poetry, and philosophy
Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin.[346] The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,[347] along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon's Hymn and hagiographies.[346] Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.
Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.[348]
Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age.[349] Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract.[349] Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth,[350] while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle, this earth of majesty, this seat of Mars, this other Eden, demi-paradise; this fortress, built by nature for herself. This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.
Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism.[352] The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.[353]
In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related.[354] Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll.[355] Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.[356]
Performing arts
The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are John Playford's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley's Roxburghe Ballads collections.[357] Some of the best-known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty.[358] Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel", “I Saw Three Ships” and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen".[359]
Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German-born George Frideric Handel spent most of his composing life in London and became a national icon in Britain, creating some of the most well-known works of classical music, especially his English oratorios, The Messiah, Solomon, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks.[360] One of his four Coronation Anthems, Zadok the Priest, composed for the coronation of George II, has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign's anointing.
Classical music attracted much attention from 1784 with the formation of the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival, which was the longest running classical music festival of its kind until the final concerts in 1912. The English Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the Royal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others.[361] Present-day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.[362]
In popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart, David Bowie, The Rolling Stones and Def Leppard are among the highest-selling recording artists in the world.[364] Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.[365]
Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. England was at the forefront of the illegal, free rave movement from the late 1980s, which led to pan-European culture of teknivals mirrored on the UK free festival movement and associated travelling lifestyle.[366] The Boishakhi Mela is a Bengali New Year festival celebrated by the British Bangladeshi community. It is the largest open-air Asian festival in Europe. After the Notting Hill Carnival, it is the second-largest street festival in the United Kingdom attracting over 80,000 visitors from across the country.[367]
The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden.[368] The Proms – a season of orchestral classical concerts held primarily at the Royal Albert Hall in London – is a major cultural event in the English calendar, and takes place yearly.[368] The Royal Ballet is one of the world's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th-century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton. The Royal Academy of Music is the oldest conservatoire in England, founded in 1822. It received its royal charter in 1830 from King George IV.[369] England is home to numerous major orchestras such as the BBC Symphony Orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, the Philharmonia Orchestra, and the London Symphony Orchestra.[370]
The circus is a traditional form of entertainment in England. Chipperfield's Circus dates back more than 300 years, making it one of the oldest family circus dynasties.[371] Philip Astley is regarded as the father of the modern circus.[372] Following his invention of the circus ring in 1768, Astley's Amphitheatre opened in London in 1773.[372][373] As an equestrian master Astley had a skill for trick horse-riding, and when he added tumblers, tightrope-walkers, jugglers, performing dogs, and a clown to fill time between his own demonstrations – the modern circus was born.[374][375]
Pantomime is a British musical comedy stage production, designed for family entertainment. It is performed in theatres throughout the England during the Christmas and New Year season. The art originated in the 18th century with John Weaver, a dance master and choreographer.[376] In 19th century England it acquired its present form, which includes songs, slapstick comedy and dancing, employing gender-crossing actors, combining topical humour with a story loosely based on a well-known fairy tale.[376]
Cinema
England (and the UK as a whole) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day-Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers.[378] Hitchcock's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 film, Blackmail, is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.[379]
Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[380] Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.[381] Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.[382] The Hammer Horror films starring Christopher Lee saw the production of the first gory horror films showing blood and guts in colour.[383]
The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public.[384] English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001.[385] Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Richard Curtis. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch, Lena Headey, Felicity Jones, Emilia Clarke, Lashana Lynch, and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011.[386] The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film.[387] Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The 'English Cycle' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh.[388]
Museums, libraries, and galleries
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England.[389] Some of the best-known of these are: Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.[390]
There are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects[391] is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world,[392] sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in almost all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books.[393][394] The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900.[395] The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.[396]
Media
The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[397][398] It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.[399][400] The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC. It is the world's largest of any kind.[401] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.[402][403]
London dominates the media sector in England: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[404] National newspapers produced in England include The Times, The Guardian and the Financial Times.[405]
Magazines and journals published in England that have achieved worldwide circulation include Nature, New Scientist, The Spectator, Prospect, NME and The Economist. The Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport has overall responsibility over media and broadcasting in England.[406]
Sport
England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football,[407] cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash,[408] rounders,[409] hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.
Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872.[410] Referred to as the "home of football" by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4–2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat-trick.[411] With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.[412]
At club level, England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world's oldest club.[407] The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.[413] The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day, the Premier League is the world's most-watched football league,[414] most lucrative,[415] and amongst the elite.[416]
As is the case throughout the UK, football in England is notable for the rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants.[417] The most successful English football team in the European Cup/UEFA Champions League is Liverpool F.C. who have won the competition on six occasions.[418] Other English success has come from Manchester United F.C., winning the competition on 3 occasions; Nottingham Forest F.C. and Chelsea F.C. on 2 occasions, Aston Villa F.C. have only won the trophy once.[419]
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald.[421] The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales, team. One of the game's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television.[422] England has hosted five Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999 and 2019), winning the 2019 edition in a final regarded as one of the greatest one day internationals ever played.[423] They hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 32 times outright and sharing it on 1 other occasion.[424] Lord's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket".[425]
William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games".[426] London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. The Minister for Sport and Civil Society has responsibility for sport in England.[427]
Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century.[428] The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, with Jonny Wilkinson scoring the winning drop goal in the last minute of extra time against Australia. England was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and also hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup.[429] The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup.
Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present-day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria.[430] The vast majority of English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, Hull F.C. St. Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously.
Golf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf.[431] There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women's. The world's oldest golf tournament, and golf's first major is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy.[432] Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or US teams.[433]
Tennis was created in Birmingham in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious.[435][436] Wimbledon is a tournament that has a major place in the British cultural calendar. Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles[437] and helped lead the Great Britain team to four Davis Cup wins. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977.
In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted "Kid" Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye.[438] In women's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world's first woman to win an Olympic boxing gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Originating in 17th and 18th-century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three-time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event's history.[439] Red Rum is also the best-known racehorse in the country.[440]
The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship.[441] Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button.[442] It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene.
Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the British Darts Organisation (BDO), which annually stages the BDO World Darts Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships.[443][444] Trina Gulliver is the ten-time Women's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan.
The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the world's most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America's Cup. England has produced some of the world's greatest sailors, including Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox-Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie.[445]
National symbols
The St George's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.[446] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.[288] During the English Civil War and Interregnum, the New Model Army's standards and the Commonwealth's Great Seal both incorporated the flag of Saint George.[447][448]
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[449] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians—cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England.[450] The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile.
The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games),[451] and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England's National Day is 23 April which is Saint George's Day: Saint George is the patron saint of England.[452]
See also
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Notes
- ^ According to the European Statistical Agency, London was the largest Larger urban zone in the EU, a measure of metropolitan area which comprises a city's urban core as well as its surrounding commuting zone. London's municipal population was also the largest in the EU.
- ^ As Roger Scruton explains, "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not make substantial change in doctrine until later."[63]
- ^ Figure of 550,000 military deaths is for England and Wales[93]
- ^ For instance, in 1980 around 50 million Americans claimed English ancestry.[247] In Canada there are around 6.5 million Canadians who claim English ancestry.[248] Around 70% of Australians in 1999 denoted their origins as Anglo-Celtic, a category which includes all peoples from Great Britain and Ireland.[249] Chileans of English descent are somewhat of an anomaly in that Chile itself was never part of the British Empire, but today there are around 420,000 people of English origins living there.[250]
- ^ a b People who strictly identified as "Pagan". Other Pagan paths, such as Wicca or Druidism, have not been included in this number.[291]
- ^ People who strictly identified as "Wiccan". Other Pagan paths, such as Druidism, and general "Pagan" have not been included in this number.[291]
- ^ Students attending English universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend university in Scotland. Scottish students attending Scottish universities have their fees paid by the devolved Scottish Parliament.[108]
- ^ While people such as Norman Foster and Richard Rogers represent the modernist movement, Prince Charles since the 1980s has voiced strong views against it in favour of traditional architecture and put his ideas into practice at his Poundbury development in Dorset.[315] Architects like Raymond Erith, Francis Johnson and Quinlan Terry continued to practise in the classical style.
- ^ These tales may have come to prominence, at least in part, as an attempt by the Norman ruling elite to legitimise their rule of the British Isles, finding Anglo-Saxon history ill-suited to the task during an era when members of the deposed House of Wessex, especially Edgar the Ætheling and his nephews of the Scottish House of Dunkeld, were still active in the isles.[324][326] Also Michael Wood explains; "Over the centuries the figure of Arthur became a symbol of British history – a way of explaining the matter of Britain, the relationship between the Saxons and the Celts, and a way of exorcising ghosts and healing the wounds of the past."[323]
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