رونالد ريغان
رونالد ريغان | |
|---|---|
 صورة رسمية ، 1981 | |
| 40 رئيس الولايات المتحدة | |
| في المنصب 20 يناير 1981 - 20 يناير 1989 | |
| نائب الرئيس | جورج اتش دبليو بوش |
| اخراج بواسطة | جيمي كارتر |
| نجحت | جورج اتش دبليو بوش |
| 33 حاكم ولاية كاليفورنيا | |
| في المنصب 2 يناير 1967-6 يناير 1975 | |
| أيتها الملازم | |
| اخراج بواسطة | بات براون |
| نجحت | جيري براون [4] |
| الرئيسان التاسع والثالث عشر لنقابة ممثلي الشاشة | |
| في المنصب 16 نوفمبر 1959-12 يونيو 1960 | |
| اخراج بواسطة | هوارد كيل |
| نجحت | جورج تشاندلر |
| في المنصب 17 نوفمبر 1947-9 نوفمبر 1952 | |
| اخراج بواسطة | روبرت مونتغمري |
| نجحت | والتر بيدجون |
| تفاصيل شخصية | |
| ولد | رونالد ويلسون ريغان 6 فبراير 1911 تامبيكو ، إلينوي ، الولايات المتحدة |
| مات | 5 يونيو 2004 (عمره 93 عامًا) لوس أنجلوس ، كاليفورنيا ، الولايات المتحدة |
| مكان للأستراحة | مكتبة ومتحف رونالد ريغان الرئاسي |
| حزب سياسي | جمهوري (من 1962) |
الانتماءات السياسية الأخرى | ديمقراطي (حتى 1962) |
| الزوج / الزوجة | |
| أطفال | |
| الآباء | |
| الأقارب | نيل ريغان (شقيق) |
| تعليم | كلية يوريكا ( بكالوريوس ) |
| احتلال |
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| الجوائز |
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| إمضاء |  |
| الخدمة العسكرية | |
| خدمة | |
| سنوات من الخدمة | |
| مرتبة | قائد المنتخب |
| وحدة | |
| الحروب | |
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|---|---|---|
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33 حاكم ولاية كاليفورنيا
40 رئيس الولايات المتحدة
سياسات
تعيينات
الفصل الدراسي الأول
الفصل الثاني
الحملات الرئاسية بعد الرئاسة
ميراث
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| جزء من سلسلة على |
| التحفظ |
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رونالد ويلسون ريغان ( / ص eɪ ɡ ən / RAY -gən ، 6 فبراير 1911 - 5 يونيو 2004) كان سياسي أميركي الذي شغل منصب 40 رئيسا للولايات المتحدة من عام 1981 إلى عام 1989. عضو ألف من الحزب الجمهوري ، شغل سابقًا منصب الحاكم الثالث والثلاثين لولاية كاليفورنيا من عام 1967 إلى عام 1975 بعد مسيرته المهنية كممثل في هوليوود وزعيم نقابي .
وُلِد ريغان لعائلة منخفضة الدخل في تامبيكو ، إلينوي . تخرج من كلية يوريكا في عام 1932 وبدأ العمل كمعلق رياضي إذاعي في ولاية أيوا . في عام 1937 ، انتقل ريغان إلى كاليفورنيا ، حيث عمل كممثل . لعب دور البطولة في العديد من الإنتاجات الكبرى. من عام 1947 إلى عام 1952 ، شغل ريغان منصب رئيس نقابة ممثلي الشاشة ، وخلال تلك الفترة عمل على استئصال النفوذ الشيوعي المزعوم داخلها. في الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي ، انتقل للعمل في التلفزيون وأصبح متحدثًا باسم شركة جنرال إلكتريك. من 1959 إلى 1960 ، شغل مرة أخرى منصب رئيس نقابة ممثلي الشاشة. في عام 1964 ، استحوذ خطابه " حان وقت الاختيار " - وهو خطاب حملته الانتخابية نيابة عن المرشح الجمهوري للرئاسة باري غولد ووتر - على اهتمامه الوطني كشخصية محافظة جديدة. بناء شبكة من المؤيدين ، انتخب ريغان حاكماً لولاية كاليفورنيا في عام 1966. وخلال فترة ولايته ، رفع الضرائب ، وحول عجز ميزانية الدولة إلى فائض ، وتحدى المتظاهرين في جامعة كاليفورنيا في بيركلي ، وأمر قوات الحرس الوطني خلال فترة حركات احتجاجية .
في نوفمبر 1979 ، أعلن ريغان ترشحه لترشيح الحزب الجمهوري في انتخابات 1980 الرئاسية . و فاز بترشيح وانتخاب، وهزيمة الحالي الديمقراطي الرئيس جيمي كارتر . في69 عامًا ، 349 يومًا في وقت تنصيبه لأول مرة ، كان ريغان أكبر شخص يتولى رئاسة الولايات المتحدة. [أ] ترشح ريغان لإعادة انتخابه في الانتخابات الرئاسية عام 1984 ، والتي عارضها المرشح الديمقراطي والتر مونديل ، الذي شغل سابقًا منصب نائب الرئيس في عهد كارتر. هزمه ريغان بأغلبية ساحقة في الانتخابات ، حيث فاز بأكبر عدد من الأصوات الانتخابية لأي رئيس أمريكي: 525 (97.6٪ من 538 صوتًا في المجمع الانتخابي ). كانت ثاني أكثر انتخابات رئاسية غير متوازنة في تاريخ الولايات المتحدة الحديث. [5]
في وقت مبكر من رئاسته ، بدأ ريغان في تنفيذ مبادرات سياسية واقتصادية جديدة. صاحب الاقتصادية في جانب العرض سياسات اطلق عليها اسم " ريغان " تخفيض معدل الضريبة -advocated لتحفيز النمو الاقتصادي والاقتصادية رفع القيود ، والحد من الإنفاق الحكومي . في ولايته الأولى ، نجا من محاولة اغتيال ، وأثار الحرب على المخدرات ، وغزا غرينادا ، وحارب النقابات العمالية في القطاع العام. خلال فترتيه ، شهد الاقتصاد انخفاضًا في التضخم من 12.5٪ إلى 4.4٪ ومتوسط إجمالي الناتج المحلي الحقيقينمو سنوي قدره 3.6٪. قام ريغان بتخفيضات في الإنفاق التقديري المحلي ، وخفض الضرائب ، وزيادة الإنفاق العسكري ، مما ساهم في زيادة الدين الفيدرالي بشكل عام. سيطرت الشؤون الخارجية على ولايته الثانية ، بما في ذلك قصف ليبيا ، والحرب الإيرانية العراقية ، وقضية إيران كونترا ، والحرب الباردة المستمرة . في خطاب ألقاه في يونيو 1987 في بوابة براندنبورغ ، بعد أربع سنوات من وصفه علنًا للاتحاد السوفييتي بأنه " إمبراطورية شريرة " ، تحدى ريغان الأمين العام السوفيتي ميخائيل جورباتشوف لفتح جدار برلين . لقد نقل سياسة الحرب الباردة من الانفراجإلى التراجع عن طريق تصعيد سباق التسلح مع الاتحاد السوفييتي في حين أن الانخراط في محادثات مع غورباتشوف. وبلغت المحادثات ذروتها في معاهدة القوات النووية متوسطة المدى ، التي قلصت الترسانات النووية لكلا البلدين. بدأ ريغان رئاسته أثناء انهيار الاتحاد السوفيتي ، الذي انهار في نهاية المطاف بعد ما يقرب من ثلاث سنوات من تركه لمنصبه.
عندما ترك ريغان منصبه في عام 1989 ، حصل على نسبة موافقة بلغت 68٪ ، مطابقة لتلك التي حصل عليها فرانكلين روزفلت ولاحقًا بيل كلينتون كأعلى التصنيفات للرؤساء المغادرين في العصر الحديث. [6] على الرغم من أنه كان قد خطط لفترة ما بعد الرئاسة ، إلا أن ريغان كشف في نوفمبر 1994 أنه قد تم تشخيصه بمرض الزهايمر في وقت سابق من ذلك العام. أصبح ظهوره العام أكثر ندرة مع تقدم مرضه. توفي ريغان في منزله في لوس أنجلوس في 5 يونيو 2004. وشكلت فترة ولايته إعادة تنظيمتجاه السياسات المحافظة في الولايات المتحدة ، وغالبًا ما يُعتبر رمزًا محافظًا. غالبًا ما تضعه تقييمات رئاسته بين المؤرخين وعامة الناس بين الطبقة العليا من الرؤساء الأمريكيين .
وقت مبكر من الحياة
ولد رونالد ويلسون ريغان في 6 فبراير 1911 ، في شقة بالطابق الثاني من مبنى تجاري في تامبيكو ، إلينوي . كان الابن الأصغر لنيل كلايد ( ني ويلسون) وجاك ريغان . [7] كان جاك بائعًا وراويًا ، وكان أجداده من المهاجرين الكاثوليك الأيرلنديين من مقاطعة تيبيراري ، [8] بينما كان نيل من أصول إنجليزية واسكتلندية. [9] أصبح شقيق رونالد الأكبر ، نيل ريغان ، مدير إعلانات. [10]
يلقب والد ريغان ابنه بـ "الهولندي" ، بسبب مظهره "الهولندي الصغير السمين" وقصة شعر الصبي الهولندي ؛ اللقب عالق معه طوال شبابه. [11] لفترة وجيزة الأسرة ريغان عاش في عدة بلدات ومدن في ولاية إيلينوي، بما في ذلك مونموث ، غلسبورغ ، وشيكاغو. [12] في عام 1919 ، عادوا إلى تامبيكو وعاشوا فوق متجر HC Pitney Variety Store حتى استقروا أخيرًا في ديكسون ، إلينوي . [7] بعد انتخابه رئيسًا ، عاش ريغان في الأحياء الخاصة بالبيت الأبيض بالطابق العلوي ، وكان يسخر من أنه "يعيش فوق المتجر" مرة أخرى. [13]
دين
كتب رونالد ريغان أن والدته "كانت تتوقع دائمًا أن تجد الأفضل في الناس وغالبًا ما تفعل ذلك". [14] كانت تحضر كنيسة تلاميذ المسيح بانتظام وكانت نشطة ومؤثرة للغاية فيها. كثيرا ما قادت خدمات مدرسة الأحد وأعطت قراءات الكتاب المقدس للجماعة أثناء الخدمات. كانت تؤمن بشدة بقوة الصلاة ، وقد قادت اجتماعات الصلاة في الكنيسة وكانت مسؤولة عن صلاة منتصف الأسبوع عندما كان القس خارج المدينة. [15] كانت أيضًا من أنصار حركة الإنجيل الاجتماعي . [16] كان التزامها القوي تجاه الكنيسة هو ما دفع ابنها رونالد إلى أن يصبح مسيحيًا بروتستانتيًا وليس كاثوليكيًا مثل والده الأيرلندي. [9]وذكر أيضًا أنها أثرت بشدة في معتقداته: "أعلم أنها غرست هذا الإيمان بعمق في داخلي". [17] عرّف ريغان عن نفسه بأنه مسيحي ولد من جديد. [18] في ديكسون ، تأثر ريغان بشدة بقسيسه بيه هيل كليفر ، الباحث المثقف. كان كليفر والد خطيبة ريغان. رآه ريغان كأب ثان. يقول ستيفن فون:
في العديد من النقاط ، تزامنت المواقف التي اتخذتها الكنيسة المسيحية الأولى لشباب ريغان مع الكلمات ، إن لم تكن معتقدات ريغان الأخير. تضمنت هذه المواقف الإيمان بالعناية الإلهية ، وربط مهمة أمريكا بإرادة الله ، والإيمان بالتقدم ، والثقة في أخلاقيات العمل ، وإعجاب أولئك الذين حققوا الثروة ، وعدم الارتياح مع الأدب والفن الذي شكك في الأسرة أو تحدت مفاهيم السلوك الجنسي السليم ، الافتراض بأن الفقر مشكلة فردية من الأفضل تركها للجمعيات الخيرية بدلاً من الدولة ، والحساسية تجاه المشاكل المتعلقة بالكحول والمخدرات ، والتحفظ على استخدام الحكومة لحماية الحقوق المدنية للأقليات. [19]
وفقًا لبول كنغور ، كان لدى ريغان إيمان قوي بشكل خاص في صلاح الناس ؛ ينبع هذا الإيمان من إيمان متفائل والدته [20] و أتباع السيد المسيح الإيمان، [20] في الذي اعتمد في عام 1922. [21] لتلك الفترة، والتي كانت قبل فترة طويلة من حركة الحقوق المدنية ، والمعارضة ريغان ل كان التمييز العنصري غير عادي. يتذكر الوقت الذي كان يقيم فيه فريق كرة القدم في الكلية في فندق محلي لم يسمح لاثنين من زملائه السود بالبقاء هناك ، ودعاهما إلى منزل والديه على بعد 15 ميلاً (24 كيلومترًا) في ديكسون. دعتهم والدته للمبيت وتناول الإفطار في صباح اليوم التالي.[22] [23] والده كان يعارض بشدة إلى كو كلوكس كلان بسبب تراثه الكاثوليكي، ولكن أيضا بسبب كلان و معاداة السامية و ضد السود العنصرية . [16] بعد أن أصبح ممثلاً بارزًا ، ألقى ريغان خطابات لصالح المساواة العرقية بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية . [24]
خلال السنوات التي قضاها في هوليوود ، أصبح ريغان عضوًا في كنيسة هوليوود بيفرلي المسيحية [18] وحضر خدماتها بشكل غير منتظم. في وقت لاحق من عام 1964 فصاعدًا ، بدأ ريغان في حضور خدمات الكنيسة في كنيسة بيل إير المشيخية ، حيث تعرف على دون موماو . [25] قلل ريغان من حضوره للكنيسة أثناء عمله كرئيس ، مشيرًا إلى الإزعاج الذي قد يجلبه حاشيته الكبيرة في الخدمة السرية إلى رواد الكنيسة الآخرين والخطر المحتمل (على الآخرين) من وجوده بسبب الإرهاب المحتمل. [26] [27] بعد ترك منصبه ، انضم ريغان رسميًا إلى شركة Bel Air كعضو فيها وحضر الخدمات هناك بانتظام. [28]
التعليم النظامي
التحق ريغان بمدرسة ديكسون الثانوية ، حيث طور اهتماماته في التمثيل والرياضة ورواية القصص. [29] تضمنت وظيفته الأولى العمل كحارس إنقاذ في نهر روك في لويل بارك في عام 1927. على مدى ست سنوات ، أجرى ريغان 77 عملية إنقاذ. [30] التحق بكلية يوريكا . كان طالبًا غير مبالٍ ، وتخصص في الاقتصاد وعلم الاجتماع وتخرج بمعدل C. [31] اشتهر بأنه "جاك لجميع المهن" ، متفوقًا في سياسة الحرم الجامعي ، والرياضة ، والمسرح. كان عضوا في فريق كرة القدم وفريق السباحة. انتخب رئيساً للهيئة الطلابية وشارك في الاحتجاجات الطلابية ضد رئيس الكلية. [32]
مهنة ترفيهية
الإذاعة والسينما
بعد تخرجه من جامعة يوريكا عام 1932 ، تولى ريغان وظائف في ولاية أيوا كمذيع إذاعي في عدة محطات. انتقل إلى منظمة الصحة العالمية الراديو في دي موين كما مذيع ل شيكاغو الأشبال مباريات البيسبول. كان تخصصه هو إنشاء حسابات اللعب عن طريق الألعاب باستخدام الأوصاف الأساسية فقط التي تلقتها المحطة عبر الأسلاك أثناء تقدم الألعاب. [33]
أثناء سفره مع شركة Cubs في كاليفورنيا عام 1937 ، أجرى ريغان اختبارًا للشاشة أدى إلى عقد لمدة سبع سنوات مع استوديوهات Warner Bros. [34] أمضى السنوات القليلة الأولى من حياته المهنية في هوليوود في وحدة " B film " ، حيث قال ريغان مازحا: "لم يرغب المنتجون في ذلك ، بل أرادوهم يوم الخميس". [35]
حصل على أول رصيد له على الشاشة من خلال دور البطولة في فيلم 1937 Love Is on the Air ، وبحلول نهاية عام 1939 ، ظهر في 19 فيلمًا ، [36] بما في ذلك Dark Victory مع Bette Davis و Humphrey Bogart . قبل فيلم Santa Fe Trail مع Errol Flynn في عام 1940 ، لعب دور جورج جيب في فيلم Knute Rockne، All American ؛ من ذلك ، حصل على لقب "The Gipper" مدى الحياة. [37] في عام 1941 ، صوته العارضون على أنه خامس أشهر نجم من جيل الشباب في هوليوود. [38]
لعب ريجان دوره التمثيلي المفضل في فيلم Kings Row عام 1942 ، [39] حيث لعب شخصًا مبتورًا يقرأ جملة "أين بقيتي؟" - التي استخدمت لاحقًا كعنوان لسيرته الذاتية لعام 1965. اعتبر العديد من نقاد السينما كينغز رو أفضل أفلامه ، [40] على الرغم من إدانة الفيلم من قبل الناقد بوسلي كروثر في صحيفة نيويورك تايمز . [41] [42]
جعل كينغز رو ريغان نجماً - ضاعف وارنر راتبه ثلاث مرات على الفور إلى 3000 دولار في الأسبوع. بعد ذلك بوقت قصير ، حصل على فاتورة نجمة مشتركة مع فلين - الذي كان لا يزال نجمًا كبيرًا في ذلك الوقت - في رحلة يائسة (1942). في أبريل 1942 ، أُمر ريغان بالخدمة العسكرية في سان فرانسيسكو ولم يصبح أبدًا نجمًا سينمائيًا كبيرًا من الدرجة الأولى على الرغم من لعب دور البطولة في العديد من الأفلام. [43] بعد خدمته العسكرية في زمن الحرب ، شارك في تأليف أفلام مثل The Voice of the Turtle ، John Loves Mary ، The Hasty Heart ، Bedtime for Bonzo ، Cattle Queen of Montana ، شريك تينيسي ،Hellcats of the Navy (الفيلم الوحيد الذي ظهر فيه مع نانسي ريغان) ، ودوره في لعب دور الشرير الشرير ، في طبعة جديدة عام 1964 The Killers (فيلمه الأخير) مع Lee Marvin و Angie Dickenson . طوال مسيرته السينمائية ، ردت والدة ريغان على الكثير من رسائل المعجبين به. [44]
الخدمة العسكرية
بعد الانتهاء من 14 دورة إرشادية للجيش للدراسة المنزلية ، التحق ريغان باحتياطي المجندين بالجيش وتم تكليفه برتبة ملازم ثان في فيلق الضباط الاحتياطيين في سلاح الفرسان في 25 مايو 1937. [45]
في 18 أبريل 1942 ، أُمر ريغان بالخدمة الفعلية لأول مرة. بسبب ضعف بصره ، تم تصنيفه لخدمة محدودة فقط ، مما منعه من الخدمة في الخارج. [46] كانت مهمته الأولى في ميناء المغادرة بسان فرانسيسكو في فورت ماسون ، كاليفورنيا ، كضابط اتصال في مكتب الموانئ والنقل. [47] بناءً على موافقة القوات الجوية للجيش الأمريكي (AAF) ، تقدم بطلب لنقل من سلاح الفرسان إلى القوات الجوية الأمريكية في 15 مايو 1942 ، وتم تعيينه في العلاقات العامة AAF وبعد ذلك إلى وحدة قاعدة AAF رقم 18 (Motion). وحدة الصورة) في كولفر سيتي ، كاليفورنيا . [47] في 14 يناير 1943 ، تمت ترقيته إلىتم إرسال ملازم أول وأرسل إلى وحدة عرض فرقة العمل المؤقتة لهذا الجيش في بوربانك ، كاليفورنيا . [47] عاد إلى الوحدة الثامنة عشر للقوات الجوية الأمريكية بعد الانتهاء من هذا الواجب وتم ترقيته إلى رتبة نقيب في 22 يوليو 1943. [48]
في يناير 1944 ، أُمر ريغان بالخدمة المؤقتة في مدينة نيويورك للمشاركة في افتتاح حملة قرض الحرب السادسة ، التي قامت بحملة لشراء سندات الحرب . تم نقله إلى الوحدة الثامنة عشر AAF في 14 نوفمبر 1944 ، حيث ظل حتى نهاية الحرب العالمية الثانية . [48] بحلول نهاية الحرب ، كانت وحداته قد أنتجت حوالي 400 فيلم تدريبي للقوات الجوية ، بما في ذلك محاكاة قمرة القيادة لأطقم B-29 المقرر لها قصف اليابان. تم فصله من الخدمة الفعلية في 9 ديسمبر 1945 كقائد للجيش. [49] بينما كان في الخدمة ، حصل ريغان على بكرة فيلم تصور تحرير محتشد اعتقال أوشفيتز؛ تمسك به ، معتقدًا أن الشكوك ستنشأ يومًا ما حول ما إذا كانت المحرقة قد حدثت. [50]
رئاسة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة
تم انتخاب ريغان لأول مرة لمجلس إدارة نقابة ممثلي الشاشة (SAG) في عام 1941 ، حيث كان يعمل كعضو بديل. بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية ، استأنف الخدمة وأصبح نائب الرئيس الثالث في عام 1946. [51] عندما استقال رئيس SAG وستة من أعضاء مجلس الإدارة في مارس 1947 بسبب اللوائح الجديدة للاتحاد بشأن تضارب المصالح ، تم انتخاب ريغان رئيسًا في انتخابات خاصة . أعيد انتخابه بعد ذلك ست مرات ، في أعوام 1947 و 1948 و 1949 و 1950 و 1951 و 1959. قاد SAG من خلال تنفيذ قانون تافت-هارتلي لعام 1947 ، ونزاعات إدارة العمل المختلفة ، وعصر القائمة السوداء في هوليوود . [51]تم إنشاء القائمة السوداء لأول مرة في عام 1947 من قبل المديرين التنفيذيين لشركة Studio الذين وافقوا على أنهم لن يوظفوا أي شخص يعتقد أنه أو أنه كان شيوعيًا أو متعاطفًا مع السياسة الراديكالية ، نمت القائمة السوداء بشكل مطرد خلال أوائل الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي حيث واصل الكونجرس الأمريكي التحقيق في التخريب السياسي المحلي . [52]
خلال فترة ولايته أيضًا ، كان ريغان فعالًا في تأمين بقايا الممثلين التلفزيونيين عندما أعيد تشغيل حلقاتهم ، ولاحقًا لممثلي الصور المتحركة عندما تم بث أفلام الاستوديو الخاصة بهم على التلفزيون. [53]
مخبر مكتب التحقيقات الفدرالي
في عام 1946 ، عمل ريغان في مجلس الإدارة الوطني للجنة المواطنين المستقلين للفنون والعلوم والمهن (ICCASP) وكان عضوًا في فرع هوليوود (HICCASP). جلب حضوره في 10 يوليو 1946 ، اجتماع HICCASP انتباه مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي ، الذي أجرى مقابلة معه في 10 أبريل 1947 ، فيما يتعلق بتحقيقه في HICCASP. [54] [55] [56] بعد أربعة عقود ، تم الكشف عن أنه في أواخر الأربعينيات من القرن الماضي ، قام ريغان (تحت الاسم الرمزي T-10) وزوجته آنذاك ، جين وايمان ، بتزويد مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي بأسماء الممثلين داخل صناعة الأفلام السينمائية الذين اعتقدوا أنهم متعاطفون مع الشيوعية. ومع ذلك ، لم يكن مرتاحًا للطريقة التي تستخدم بها الحكومة SAG ، حيث سأل خلال مقابلة واحدة مع مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي ، "هل يتوقعون (أي لجنة الأنشطة غير الأمريكية في مجلس النواب ) أن نصنع أنفسنا كقليل من مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي الخاص بنا وتحديد من هو Commie ومن ليس كذلك؟ " [57] [58]
جلسات استماع HUAC في هوليوود
في أكتوبر 1947 خلال جلسات الاستماع في هوليوود HUAC ، أدلى ريغان بشهادته كرئيس لنقابة ممثلي الشاشة : [59]
كانت هناك مجموعة صغيرة داخل نقابة ممثلي الشاشة التي عارضت باستمرار سياسة مجلس النقابة وضباط النقابة ... المشتبه بهم في اتباع التكتيكات التي نربطها بالحزب الشيوعي ... وقد حاولت أن تكون لها تأثير التخريبية ... لقد سمعت مناقشات مختلفة وبعضها يوصف بانه الشيوعيين ... وجدت نفسي ضلل إلى كونه الراعي في مناسبة أخرى للحصول على وظيفة والذي عقد تحت رعاية مكافحة المشتركة لجنة اللاجئين الفاشية . [59]
فيما يتعلق بـ "الإضراب القضائي" الذي استمر سبعة أشهر في ذلك الوقت ، شهد ريغان:
كانت المرة الأولى التي تم فيها إدخال كلمة "شيوعي" في أي من الاجتماعات المتعلقة بالإضراب في اجتماع في شيكاغو مع السيد ويليام هاتشينسون ، رئيس جماعة الإخوان المسلمين المتحدة للنجارين والنجارين ، الذين كانوا مضربين في ذلك الوقت. لقد طلب من نقابة ممثلي الشاشة تقديم شروط للسيد والش ، لكي يستسلم والش لتسوية هذا الإضراب ، وأخبرنا أن نخبر السيد والش أنه إذا استسلم لهذه الشروط ، فسيترشح بدوره هذا سوريل والكومييس الآخرون - أنا أقتبس منه - ويفككون الأمر. [59]
ومع ذلك ، عارض ريغان أيضًا الإجراءات التي سرعان ما تظهر في مشروع قانون موندت ونيكسون في مايو 1948 من خلال الافتتاح:
كمواطن سأتردد أو لا أحب أن أرى أي حزب سياسي خارج عن القانون على أساس أيديولوجيته السياسية ... غير نزيهة ، لكن في الوقت نفسه ، لا أريد أبدًا كمواطن أن أرى بلدنا مدفوعًا ، إما بالخوف أو الاستياء من هذه المجموعة ، على أن نتنازل عن أي من مبادئنا الديمقراطية من خلال هذا الخوف أو الاستياء. [59]
علاوة على ذلك ، عندما سئل عما إذا كان على علم بالجهود الشيوعية داخل نقابة كتاب الشاشة ، لم يكن ريغان يتماشى مع ذلك ، قائلاً ، "سيدي ، مثل السادة الآخرين ، يجب أن أقول إن هذه إشاعات". [59]
التلفاز
حصل ريغان على عدد أقل من الأدوار السينمائية في أواخر الخمسينيات وانتقل إلى التلفزيون. [35] تم تعيينه كمضيف لمسرح جنرال إلكتريك ، [60] سلسلة من الأعمال الدرامية الأسبوعية التي أصبحت مشهورة جدًا. [35] عقد صاحب حاجة له للقيام بجولة جنرال إلكتريك (GE) النباتات 16 أسبوعا من السنة، والتي غالبا ما طلب منه إعطاء 14 محادثات في اليوم الواحد. [35] حصل على ما يقرب من 125000 دولار (ما يعادل 1.1 مليون دولار في عام 2020) في هذا الدور. استمر العرض لمدة عشرة مواسم من 1953 إلى 1962 ، مما زاد من صورة ريغان الوطنية. [61] في 1 يناير 1959 ، كان ريغان هو المضيف والمذيع في تغطية ABC لبطولة Roses Parade. [62] في آخر أعماله كممثل محترف ، كان ريغان مضيفًا ومؤديًا من عام 1964 إلى عام 1965 في المسلسل التلفزيوني " أيام وادي الموت" . [63] بعد زواجهما في عام 1952 ، عمل رونالد ونانسي ريغان ، اللذان واصلا استخدام اسم المسرح نانسي ديفيس ، معًا في ثلاث حلقات من المسلسلات التلفزيونية ، بما في ذلك جزء من مسرح جنرال إلكتريك عام 1958 بعنوان "تركيا للرئيس". [64]
الزواج والاطفال
في عام 1938 ، شارك ريغان في بطولة فيلم Brother Rat مع الممثلة جين وايمان (1917-2007). أعلنا خطوبتهما في مسرح شيكاغو [65] وتزوجا في 26 يناير 1940 في كنيسة وي كيرك أو هيذر في غليندال ، كاليفورنيا. [66] أنجبا معًا ابنتان بيولوجيتان ، مورين (1941-2001) وكريستين (ولدت قبل الأوان وتوفيت في 26 يونيو 1947). وتبنى ولدا ، مايكل (مواليد 1945). [67] بعد جدال بين الزوجين حول طموحات ريغان السياسية ، قدم وايمان دعوى الطلاق في عام 1948 ، [68]نقلاً عن مصدر إلهاء بسبب واجبات نقابة ممثلي الشاشة لزوجها ؛ تم الانتهاء من الطلاق في عام 1949. [37] كما ذكر وايمان ، الذي كان جمهوريًا مسجلاً ، أن الانفصال نشأ عن اختلاف في السياسة (كان ريجان لا يزال ديمقراطيًا في ذلك الوقت). [69] عندما أصبح ريغان رئيسًا بعد 32 عامًا ، أصبح أول شخص مطلق يتولى أعلى منصب في البلاد. [70] ظل ريغان ووايمان صديقين حتى وفاته. صوّت وايمان لريغان في كل من جولاته ، وعند وفاته قالت: "لقد خسرت أمريكا رئيسًا عظيمًا ورجلًا عظيمًا لطيفًا ولطيفًا". [71]
التقى ريغان بالممثلة نانسي ديفيس (1921-2016) [72] [73] في عام 1949 بعد أن اتصلت به بصفته رئيسًا لنقابة ممثلي الشاشة. ساعدها في القضايا المتعلقة بظهور اسمها على القائمة السوداء الشيوعية في هوليوود ؛ كانت مخطئة بالنسبة لنانسي ديفيس أخرى. ووصفت لقائهما بالقول: "لا أعرف ما إذا كان الحب بالضبط من النظرة الأولى ، لكنه كان قريبًا جدًا." [74] كانا مخطوبين في مطعم شاسن في لوس أنجلوس وتزوجا في 4 مارس 1952 في كنيسة ليتل براون في الوادي (شمال هوليوود ، الآن ستوديو سيتي) سان فرناندو فالي . [75] الممثل ويليام هولدنخدم كأفضل رجل في الحفل. أنجبا طفلين: باتي ( مواليد 1952) ورونالد "رون" (مواليد 1958).
كانت علاقة الزوجين وثيقة وأصلية وحميمة. [76] خلال فترة رئاسته ، أظهروا في كثير من الأحيان المودة لبعضهم البعض. قال سكرتير صحفي: "لم يأخذوا بعضهم البعض كأمر مسلم به. لم يتوقفوا عن المغازلة". [74] [77] غالبًا ما كان يطلق عليها اسم "أمي" ، وكانت تسميه "روني". [77] كتب لها ذات مرة ، "كل ما أعتز به وأستمتع به ... سيكون كل شيء بلا معنى إذا لم يكن لديّك." [78] في عام 1998 ، بينما كان يعاني من مرض الزهايمر ، قالت نانسي لمجلة فانيتي فير ، "علاقتنا خاصة جدًا. كنا في حالة حب ولا نزال كذلك. عندما أقول إن حياتي بدأت مع روني ، حسنًا ، هذا صحيح. فعلت. أستطيعتخيلوا الحياة بدونه ". [74] توفيت نانسي ريغان في 6 مارس 2016 عن عمر يناهز 94 عامًا.
مهنة سياسية مبكرة
بدأ ريغان كديمقراطي في هوليوود ، وكان فرانكلين دي روزفلت "بطلًا حقيقيًا" بالنسبة له. [80] انتقل إلى الجناح اليميني في الخمسينيات ، وأصبح جمهوريًا في عام 1962 ، وبرز كمتحدث محافظ بارز في حملة جولد ووتر عام 1964 . [81]
في بداية حياته السياسية ، انضم إلى العديد من اللجان السياسية ذات التوجه اليساري ، مثل لجنة المحاربين القدامى الأمريكيين . حارب ضد تشريع الحق في العمل الذي يرعاه الجمهوريون ودعم هيلين غاهاغان دوغلاس في عام 1950 عندما هُزمت في مجلس الشيوخ من قبل ريتشارد نيكسون . كان اعتقاده أن الشيوعيين كان لهم تأثير قوي وراء الكواليس في تلك الجماعات التي دفعته إلى حشد أصدقائه ضدهم. [82]
في التجمعات ، تحدث ريغان كثيرًا ببعد أيديولوجي قوي. في ديسمبر 1945 ، تم منعه من قيادة مسيرة مناهضة للأسلحة النووية في هوليوود بضغط من استوديو وارنر براذرز . وفي وقت لاحق ، جعل الأسلحة النووية نقطة رئيسية في رئاسته عندما صرح على وجه التحديد بمعارضته للتدمير المتبادل المؤكد . كما بنى ريغان على الجهود السابقة للحد من انتشار الأسلحة النووية. [83] في الانتخابات الرئاسية لعام 1948 ، أيد ريغان بقوة هاري إس ترومان وظهر على خشبة المسرح معه خلال خطاب حملته في لوس أنجلوس. [84] في أوائل الخمسينيات من القرن الماضي ، نمت علاقته بالممثلة نانسي ديفيس ، [85]وانتقل إلى اليمين عندما أيد الترشيحات الرئاسية لدوايت دي أيزنهاور (1952 و 1956) وريتشارد نيكسون (1960). [86]
عينت شركة جنرال إلكتريك ريجان عام 1954 لاستضافة مسرح جنرال إلكتريك ، وهو مسلسل درامي تلفزيوني أسبوعي. كما سافر في جميع أنحاء البلاد لإلقاء خطابات تحفيزية لأكثر من 200000 موظف في جنرال إلكتريك. كانت خطاباته العديدة - التي كتبها بنفسه - غير حزبية ولكنها حملت رسالة محافظة ومؤيدة للأعمال التجارية ؛ لقد تأثر بليموئيل بولوير ، أحد كبار المسؤولين التنفيذيين في جنرال إلكتريك. بولوير ، المعروف بموقفه المتشدد ضد النقابات واستراتيجياته المبتكرة لكسب العمال ، دافع عن المبادئ الأساسية للمحافظة الأمريكية الحديثة: الأسواق الحرة ، ومعاداة الشيوعية ، والضرائب المنخفضة ، والحكومة المحدودة . [87]كان حريصًا على مرحلة أكبر ، ولكن لم يُسمح له بدخول السياسة من قبل شركة جنرال إلكتريك ، استقال وسجل رسميًا باعتباره جمهوريًا. [88] غالبًا ما كان يقول: "لم أترك الحزب الديمقراطي. تركني الحزب". [89]
عندما تم تقديم التشريع الذي سيصبح ميديكير في عام 1961 ، أنشأ تسجيلًا للجمعية الطبية الأمريكية (AMA) يحذر من أن مثل هذا التشريع سيعني نهاية الحرية في أمريكا. قال ريغان إنه إذا لم يكتب مستمعوه رسائل لمنع ذلك ، "سنستيقظ لنجد أن لدينا اشتراكية . وإذا لم تفعل ذلك ، وإذا لم أفعل ذلك ، في أحد هذه الأيام ، أنت و سأقضي سنوات غروب الشمس وأنا أقول لأطفالنا وأطفالنا ما كان عليه الحال في أمريكا عندما كان الرجال أحرارًا ". [90] [91] تضمنت المبادرات الديمقراطية الأخرى التي عارضها في الستينيات برنامج قسائم الطعام ، ورفع الحد الأدنى للأجور ، وتأسيسفيلق السلام . [16] انضم أيضًا إلى الجمعية الوطنية للبنادق (NRA) وسيصبح عضوًا مدى الحياة. [92]
اكتسب ريغان اهتمامًا قوميًا في خطاباته للمنافس الرئاسي المحافظ باري غولدووتر في عام 1964. [93] وفي حديثه عن غولد ووتر ، شدد ريغان على إيمانه بأهمية الحكومة الأصغر. قام بتوحيد الموضوعات التي طورها في محادثاته لشركة GE لإلقاء خطابه الشهير ، " حان وقت الاختيار ":
عرف الآباء المؤسسون أن الحكومة لا تستطيع السيطرة على الاقتصاد دون السيطرة على الناس. وكانوا يعلمون أنه عندما تشرع الحكومة في القيام بذلك ، يجب عليها استخدام القوة والإكراه لتحقيق هدفها. لذا فقد حان الوقت للاختيار ... قيل لي وأنا أنه يجب علينا الاختيار بين اليسار أو اليمين ، لكنني أقترح أنه لا يوجد شيء مثل اليسار أو اليمين. لا يوجد سوى أعلى أو أسفل. حتى حلم الإنسان القديم - الحد الأقصى من الحرية الفردية المتوافقة مع النظام - أو نزولاً إلى كومة النمل من الشمولية. [94] [95]
- 27 أكتوبر 1964
لم يكن خطاب "وقت الاختيار" هذا كافيًا لتغيير مسار حملة غولد ووتر المتعثرة ، لكنه كان الحدث الحاسم الذي أسس رؤية ريغان السياسية الوطنية. وصفها ديفيد برودر من صحيفة واشنطن بوست بأنها "أنجح ظهور سياسي وطني منذ أن قام ويليام جينينغز برايان بإثارة المؤتمر الديموقراطي لعام 1896 بخطابه على صليب الذهب". [96] [97] [98]
حاكم كاليفورنيا (1967-1975)
| صوت خارجي | |
|---|---|
| كلمة لنادي الصحافة الوطني | |
 خطاب ريغان في 16 يونيو 1966 (يبدأ في 06:16 ؛ وينتهي في 39:04) [99] |
أعجب الجمهوريون في كاليفورنيا بآراء ريغان السياسية وجاذبيته بعد خطابه "حان وقت الاختيار" ، [100] وفي أواخر عام 1965 أعلن حملته الانتخابية لمنصب الحاكم في انتخابات عام 1966 . [101] [102] هزم عمدة سان فرانسيسكو السابق جورج كريستوفر في الانتخابات التمهيدية للحزب الجمهوري. في حملة ريغان ، شدد على موضوعين رئيسيين: " إعادة عمال الرعاية الاجتماعية إلى العمل" ، وفي إشارة إلى الاحتجاجات الطلابية المناهضة للحرب والمناهضة للمؤسسة في جامعة كاليفورنيا ، بيركلي ، "لتنظيف الفوضى. في بيركلي ". [103] في عام 1966 ، أنجز ريغان كل من السيناتور الأمريكيفشل وليام نولاند في عام 1958 ونائب الرئيس السابق ريتشارد نيكسون في عام 1962 في القيام بذلك: تم انتخابه ، وهزم بات براون ، الحاكم الديمقراطي لفترتين. أدى ريغان اليمين الدستورية في 2 يناير 1967. وفي ولايته الأولى ، جمد التوظيف الحكومي ووافق على زيادات ضريبية لتحقيق التوازن في الميزانية. [104]
ريغان : 50-59٪ 60-69٪ 70-79٪
بني : 50-59٪
بعد فترة وجيزة من توليه منصبه ، اختبر ريغان المياه الرئاسية لعام 1968 كجزء من حركة "أوقفوا نيكسون" ، على أمل قطع الدعم الجنوبي لنيكسون [106] ويصبح مرشحًا وسطًا [107] إذا لم يتلق نيكسون ولا المرشح الثاني نيلسون روكفلر ما يكفي من المندوبين للفوز في الاقتراع الأول في المؤتمر الجمهوري . ومع ذلك ، بحلول وقت المؤتمر ، كان لدى نيكسون 692 صوتًا من المندوبين ، أي أكثر من 25 صوتًا مما يحتاجه لتأمين الترشيح ، تلاه روكفلر مع ريغان في المركز الثالث. [106]
شارك ريغان في العديد من النزاعات البارزة مع حركات الاحتجاج في ذلك العصر ، بما في ذلك انتقاده العلني لمديري الجامعات لتسامحهم مع المظاهرات الطلابية في حرم بيركلي. في 15 مايو 1969 ، أثناء احتجاجات حديقة الشعب في حرم الجامعة (كان الغرض الأصلي منها مناقشة الصراع العربي الإسرائيلي ) ، أرسل ريغان دورية الطرق السريعة في كاليفورنيا وضباطًا آخرين لقمع الاحتجاجات. أدى ذلك إلى حادثة عُرفت باسم "الخميس الدامي" ، مما أدى إلى وفاة الطالب جيمس ريكتور وإصابة النجار آلان بلانشارد بالعمى. [108] [109]بالإضافة إلى ذلك ، أصيب 111 ضابط شرطة في النزاع ، من بينهم واحد أصيب بطعن في صدره. ثم دعا ريغان 2200 من قوات الحرس الوطني بالولاية إلى احتلال مدينة بيركلي لمدة أسبوعين لقمع المحتجين. [108] ظل الحرس في بيركلي لمدة 17 يومًا ، حيث خيموا في بيبولز بارك ، وخمدت المظاهرات حيث أزالت الجامعة السياج المطوق وعلقت جميع خطط التطوير الخاصة بحديقة بيبولز. [108] [110] بعد مرور عام على الحادث ، رد ريغان على أسئلة حول حركات الاحتجاج في الحرم الجامعي قائلاً ، "إذا أخذنا حمام دم ، فلننتهي من الأمر. لا مزيد من الاسترضاء." [111] عندما اختطف جيش التحرير Symbioneseباتي هيرست في بيركلي وطالبت بتوزيع الطعام على الفقراء ، مازح ريغان أمام مجموعة من المساعدين السياسيين حول تفشي التسمم الغذائي الذي يلوث الطعام. [112]
في أوائل عام 1967 ، بدأ النقاش الوطني حول الإجهاض يكتسب زخمًا. في المراحل الأولى من النقاش ، قدم السناتور الديمقراطي عن ولاية كاليفورنيا أنتوني بيلنسون قانون الإجهاض العلاجي في محاولة لتقليل عدد "عمليات الإجهاض في الغرف الخلفية" التي تتم في كاليفورنيا. [108] المجلس التشريعي للولاية إرسال مشروع القانون إلى مكتب ريغان حيث، وبعد عدة أيام من التردد، وقال انه وقع على مضض على 14 يونيو، 1967. [113] معلومات سوف يقوم اثنان مليون عملية إجهاض نتيجة لذلك، ومعظمهم بسبب حكم في مشروع القانون الذي يسمح بالإجهاض من أجل رفاهية الأم. [113]كان ريغان في منصبه لمدة أربعة أشهر فقط عندما وقع على القانون ، وذكر لاحقًا أنه لو كان أكثر خبرة كحاكم ، لما وقع عليه. بعد أن أدرك ما أسماه "عواقب" مشروع القانون ، أعلن أنه ضد الإجهاض . [113] حافظ على هذا المنصب لاحقًا في حياته السياسية ، وكتب بإسهاب عن الإجهاض. [114]
في عام 1967 ، وقع ريغان قانون مولفورد ، الذي ألغى قانونًا يسمح بحمل الأسلحة النارية المحملة للجمهور (أصبح قانون العقوبات في كاليفورنيا 12031 و 171 (ج)). حصل مشروع القانون ، الذي سمي على اسم عضو الجمعية الجمهوري دون مولفورد ، على اهتمام وطني بعد أن سار الفهود السود حاملين السلاح على مبنى الكابيتول بولاية كاليفورنيا للاحتجاج عليه. [115] [116]
على الرغم من المحاولة الفاشلة لفرض إعادة انتخاب ريغان في عام 1968 ، [117] أعيد انتخابه حاكمًا في عام 1970 ، متغلبًا على جيسي إم أونروه . اختار عدم الترشح لولاية ثالثة في الدورة الانتخابية التالية. كانت إحدى أعظم إحباطات ريغان في المنصب هي الجدل حول عقوبة الإعدام ، والتي أيدها بقوة. [39] أحبطت جهوده لفرض قوانين الدولة في هذا المجال عندما المحكمة العليا في كاليفورنيا صدر لها الشعب ضد أندرسونالقرار ، الذي أبطل جميع أحكام الإعدام الصادرة في ولاية كاليفورنيا قبل عام 1972 ، على الرغم من إلغاء القرار في وقت لاحق من خلال تعديل دستوري. كان الإعدام الوحيد خلال حكم ريغان في 12 أبريل 1967 ، عندما تم تنفيذ حكم آرون ميتشل من قبل الدولة في غرفة الغاز في سان كوينتين . [118]
في عام 1969 ، وقع ريغان قانون الأسرة ، الذي كان عبارة عن مزيج من مشروعي قانون تمت كتابتهما وتنقيحهما من قبل الهيئة التشريعية لولاية كاليفورنيا على مدى أكثر من عامين. [119] أصبح هذا التشريع أول تشريع للطلاق بدون خطأ في الولايات المتحدة. [120] بعد سنوات ، أخبر ابنه مايكل أن توقيع هذا القانون كان بمثابة "أسفه الشديد" في الحياة العامة. [121] [122]
ساعدت فترات ريغان في منصب الحاكم على تشكيل السياسات التي كان سيتبعها في حياته السياسية اللاحقة كرئيس. من خلال حملته على أساس برنامج إعادة "عمال الرفاهية إلى العمل" ، تحدث ضد فكرة دولة الرفاهية . كما دعا بقوة إلى المثل الجمهوري المتمثل في تقليل التنظيم الحكومي للاقتصاد ، بما في ذلك الضرائب الفيدرالية غير الضرورية. [123]
الحملة الرئاسية 1976
اعتمدت حملة ريغان عام 1976 على استراتيجية صاغها مدير الحملة جون سيرز للفوز بعدد قليل من الانتخابات التمهيدية مبكرًا لتدمير حتمية ترشيح فورد المحتمل. فاز ريغان في ولاية كارولينا الشمالية وتكساس وكاليفورنيا ، لكن الاستراتيجية فشلت ، [124] انتهى به الأمر بخسارة نيو هامبشاير ، فلوريدا ، وموطنه الأصلي إلينوي. [125] أعطت حملة تكساس أملًا متجددًا لريغان عندما اجتاح 96 مندوباً تم اختيارهم في الانتخابات التمهيدية في 1 مايو ، مع انتظار أربعة آخرين في مؤتمر الولاية. جاء الكثير من الفضل في هذا النصر من عمل ثلاثة رؤساء مشاركين ، بما في ذلك إرنست أنجيلو ، عمدة ميدلاند ، وراي بارنهارت من هيوستن.، الذي سيعينه ريغان كرئيس في عام 1981 مديراً للإدارة الفيدرالية للطرق السريعة . [126]
ومع ذلك ، مع اقتراب مؤتمر الحزب الجمهوري ، بدا فورد على وشك الانتصار. الاعتراف الجناح المعتدل حزبه، اختار ريغان عضو مجلس الشيوخ المعتدلين ريتشارد شوايكر بنسلفانيا كما له تشغيل زميله اذا تم ترشيحه. ومع ذلك ، فاز فورد بـ1187 مندوبًا مقابل 1070 ريجان. [125]
أكد خطاب التنازل الذي ألقاه ريغان على مخاطر الحرب النووية والتهديد الذي يمثله الاتحاد السوفيتي. على الرغم من خسارته للترشيح ، فقد حصل على 307 أصوات كتابية في نيو هامبشاير ، و 388 صوتًا كمستقل في اقتراع وايومنغ ، وصوت انتخابي واحد من ناخب غير مؤمن في انتخابات نوفمبر من ولاية واشنطن. [127]
1978: معارضة مبادرة بريجز
في عام 1978، المحافظ المشرع الدولة جون بريغز ، برعاية مبادرة الاقتراع ل7 نوفمبر 1978 كاليفورنيا انتخابات الدولة ( مبادرة بريغز ) التي تسعى إلى حظر مثليون جنسيا و مثليات من العمل في ولاية كاليفورنيا المدارس العامة . [128] رسمياً ، كان اقتراح كاليفورنيا رقم 6 عبارة عن مبادرة اقتراع طُرحت للاستفتاء على اقتراع الولاية. [129]قاد نشطاء مجتمع الميم وقليل من السياسيين التقدميين المعارضة المبكرة ، ولكن لدهشة الكثير من الناس ، تحرك ريغان لمعارضة الإجراء علنًا. أصدر خطابًا غير رسمي معارضة للمبادرة ، وقال للصحفيين إنه يعارضها ، وكتب افتتاحية في صحيفة لوس أنجلوس هيرالد إكزامينر يعارضها. [130] [131]
كان توقيت معارضة ريغان مهمًا ، وفاجأ الكثيرين ، لأنه كان يستعد بعد ذلك للترشح للرئاسة ، وهو سباق سيحتاج فيه إلى دعم المحافظين والمعتدلين الذين كانوا غير مرتاحين للمعلمين المثليين جنسياً. في تلك اللحظة بالذات ، كان يغازل قادة اليمين الديني ، بما في ذلك جيري فالويل ، الذي سيواصل تشكيل الأغلبية الأخلاقية لمحاربة قضايا الحرب الثقافية في العام التالي. [132] وكما قال كاتب سيرة ريغان لو كانون ، كان ريغان "مدركًا جيدًا أن هناك من أراده أن يتجنب القضية" ولكن مع ذلك "اختار أن يعلن قناعاته". [133]يذكر كانون أن ريغان "صدته الحملات الصليبية العامة العدوانية ضد أنماط الحياة الجنسية المثلية التي أصبحت عنصرًا أساسيًا في سياسات الجناح اليميني في أواخر السبعينيات". [133] ذكرت افتتاحية ريغان في 1 نوفمبر ، جزئيًا ، "" أياً كان الأمر ، فإن المثلية الجنسية ليست مرضًا معديًا مثل مرض الحصبة. السائدة الرأي العلمي هو أن الحياة الجنسية للفرد يتحدد في سن مبكرة جدا وأن المعلمين الطفل لا تؤثر حقا هذا ". [130]
1980 الحملة الرئاسية
وشهدت الانتخابات الرئاسية لعام 1980 مشاركة ريغان ضد الرئيس الحالي جيمي كارتر وأجريت وسط العديد من المخاوف المحلية بالإضافة إلى أزمة الرهائن الإيرانية المستمرة . أكدت حملة ريغان على بعض مبادئه الأساسية: خفض الضرائب لتحفيز الاقتصاد ، [134] تقليل تدخل الحكومة في حياة الناس ، [135] حقوق الدول ، [136] والدفاع الوطني القوي. [137]
أطلق ريغان حملته بإصدار لائحة اتهام لحكومة فيدرالية يعتقد أنها "أفرطت في الإنفاق ، وأفرطت في التحفيز ، وأفرطت في التنظيم". بعد حصوله على ترشيح الحزب الجمهوري ، اختار ريغان أحد خصومه من الانتخابات التمهيدية ، جورج إتش دبليو بوش ، ليكون نائبًا له. وقد أدى ظهوره المريح والواثق خلال المناظرة المتلفزة بين ريجان وكارتر في 28 أكتوبر / تشرين الأول إلى تعزيز شعبيته وساعد في زيادة تقدمه في استطلاعات الرأي. [138] [139]
في 4 نوفمبر، فاز ريغان نصرا حاسما على كارتر وعلى متنها 44 دولة واستقبال 489 صوتا في المجمع الانتخابي إلى 49 كارتر في ست ولايات بالإضافة إلى العاصمة كما فاز في التصويت الشعبي، وتلقي 50.7 في المئة الى كارتر 41.0 في المئة، مع مستقل جون B. أندرسون حصل 6.6 بالمائة. فاز الجمهوريون أيضًا بأغلبية المقاعد في مجلس الشيوخ لأول مرة منذ عام 1952 ، على الرغم من احتفاظ الديمقراطيين بأغلبية في مجلس النواب . [139] [140] [141]
الرئاسة (1981-1989)
خلال فترة رئاسته ، اتبع ريغان سياسات عكست إيمانه الشخصي بالحرية الفردية ، وأحدثت تغييرات اقتصادية ، ووسعت نطاق الجيش وساهمت في نهاية الحرب الباردة . [142] سميت "ثورة ريجان" ، ومن شأن رئاسته أن ترفع الروح المعنوية الأمريكية ، [143] [144] وتنشط الاقتصاد الأمريكي وتقلل الاعتماد على الحكومة. [142] كرئيس ، احتفظ ريغان بمذكرات علق فيها على الأحداث اليومية لرئاسته وآرائه حول قضايا اليوم. نُشرت اليوميات في مايو 2007 في الكتاب الأكثر مبيعًا The Reagan Diaries . [145]
الفصل الدراسي الأول
كان ريغان 69 عامًا ، 349 يومًا عندما أدى اليمين الدستورية لولايته الأولى في 20 يناير 1981 ، مما جعله أكبر رئيس سناً في ذلك الوقت. لقد احتفظ بهذا التميز حتى عام 2017 ، عندما تم تنصيب دونالد ترامب في سنه70 عامًا ، 220 يومًا ، على الرغم من أن ريغان كان أكبر سنًا عند تنصيبه لولايته الثانية. [146] في خطابه الافتتاحي ، تحدث عن الأزمة الاقتصادية في البلاد ، قائلاً: "في هذه الأزمة الحالية ، الحكومة ليست الحل لمشاكلنا ؛ الحكومة هي المشكلة." [147]
صلاة في المدارس ولحظة صمت
قام ريغان بحملة نشطة لإعادة الصلاة المنظمة إلى المدارس ، أولاً كلحظة صلاة ولاحقًا كلحظة صمت. [148] في عام 1981 ، أصبح ريغان أول رئيس يقترح تعديلًا دستوريًا للصلاة في المدرسة . [149] عكس انتخاب ريغان معارضة [149] لقضية المحكمة العليا عام 1962 إنجل ضد فيتالي التي منعت مسؤولي الدولة من تأليف صلاة رسمية وطلب تلاوتها في المدارس العامة. [150]نص التعديل الذي اقترحه ريغان عام 1981 على ما يلي: "لا شيء في هذا الدستور يجب أن يفسر على أنه يحظر صلاة فردية أو جماعية في المدارس العامة أو المؤسسات العامة الأخرى. لا يجوز للولايات المتحدة أو أي ولاية أن تطلب من أي شخص المشاركة في الصلاة". في عام 1984 ، أثار ريغان القضية مرة أخرى ، وسأل الكونجرس ، "لماذا لا يتمتع الأطفال بحرية الاعتراف بالله مرة أخرى في كل فصل دراسي عبر هذه الأرض؟" [151] في عام 1985 ، أعرب ريغان عن خيبة أمله لأن حكم المحكمة العليا لا يزال يحظر لحظة صمت للمدارس العامة ، وقال إن الجهود المبذولة لإعادة الصلاة في المدارس العامة كانت "معركة شاقة". [152]في عام 1987 ، جدد ريغان دعوته للكونغرس لدعم الصلاة الطوعية في المدارس وإنهاء "طرد الله من الفصول الدراسية في أمريكا". [153]
محاولة اغتيال
في 30 مارس 1981 ، تعرض ريغان وسكرتيره الصحفي جيمس برادي وضابط شرطة واشنطن توماس ديلاهانتي وعميل الخدمة السرية تيم مكارثي لإطلاق نار من القاتل المحتمل جون هينكلي جونيور خارج فندق واشنطن هيلتون . على الرغم من أنه "على وشك الموت" عند وصوله إلى مستشفى جامعة جورج واشنطن ، إلا أن ريغان استقر في غرفة الطوارئ ، ثم خضع لعملية جراحية استكشافية طارئة. [154] تعافى وخرج من المستشفى في 11 أبريل / نيسان ، ليصبح أول رئيس أمريكي ينجو من إطلاق النار عليه في محاولة اغتيال. [155]كان لهذه المحاولة تأثير كبير على شعبية ريغان. أشارت استطلاعات الرأي إلى أن نسبة تأييده تبلغ حوالي 73 بالمائة. [155] يعتقد ريغان أن الله قد أنقذ حياته حتى يتمكن من تحقيق هدف أسمى. [156]
ساندرا داي أوكونور
في 7 يوليو 1981 ، أعلن ريغان أنه يعتزم ترشيح ساندرا داي أوكونور قاضية مشاركة في المحكمة العليا للولايات المتحدة ، لتحل محل القاضي المتقاعد بوتر ستيوارت . كان قد تعهد خلال حملته الرئاسية لعام 1980 بأنه سيعين أول امرأة في المحكمة [157] في 21 سبتمبر ، صدق مجلس الشيوخ الأمريكي على أوكونور بأغلبية 99 صوتًا مقابل لا شيء. [158]
إضراب مراقبي الحركة الجوية
في أغسطس 1981، PATCO ، اتحاد المراقبين الجويين الاتحادية، أضربوا عن العمل ، وانتهاك قانون اتحادي يحظر النقابات الحكومة من ملفتة للنظر. [159] أعلن ريغان أن الوضع حالة طوارئ كما هو موضح في قانون تافت-هارتلي لعام 1947 ، وذكر أنه إذا لم يقم مراقبو الحركة الجوية "بالإبلاغ عن العمل في غضون 48 ساعة ، فقد فقدوا وظائفهم وسيتم إنهاء خدمتهم". [160] لم يعودوا ، وفي 5 أغسطس ، أطلق ريغان 11،345 من مراقبي الحركة الجوية المضربين الذين تجاهلوا أمره واستخدموا المشرفين والمراقبين العسكريين للتعامل مع الحركة الجوية التجارية للبلاد حتى يتم تعيين وتدريب وحدات تحكم جديدة. [161]خلص عمل مرجعي رائد في الإدارة العامة إلى أن "إقالة موظفي باتكو لم يظهر فقط تصميمًا واضحًا من قبل الرئيس للسيطرة على البيروقراطية ، بل أرسل أيضًا رسالة واضحة إلى القطاع الخاص مفادها أن النقابات لم تعد بحاجة إلى الخوف. . " [162]
"ريغان" والاقتصاد
خلال آخر سنة كاملة لجيمي كارتر في المنصب (1980) ، بلغ معدل التضخم 12.5 في المائة ، مقارنة بـ 4.4 في المائة خلال آخر سنة كاملة لريغان في المنصب (1988). [163] خلال إدارة ريغان ، انخفض معدل البطالة من 7.5 في المائة إلى 5.4 في المائة ، ووصل المعدل إلى 10.8 في المائة في عام 1982 و 10.4 في المائة في عام 1983 ، بمتوسط 7.5 في المائة على مدى السنوات الثماني ، وبلغ متوسط نمو إجمالي الناتج المحلي الحقيقي 3.4 في المائة مع أعلى بنسبة 8.6 في المائة في عام 1983 ، بينما بلغ متوسط نمو الناتج المحلي الإجمالي الاسمي 7.4 في المائة ، وبلغ ذروته عند 12.2 في المائة في عام 1982. [164] [165] [166]
نفذ ريجان سياسات نيوليبرالية قائمة على اقتصاديات جانب العرض ، داعياً إلى فلسفة عدم التدخل وسياسة مالية السوق الحرة ، [167] سعياً لتحفيز الاقتصاد بتخفيضات ضريبية كبيرة وشاملة . [168] [169] كما أيد إعادة الولايات المتحدة إلى نوع من المعايير الذهبية ونجح في حث الكونجرس على إنشاء لجنة الذهب الأمريكية لدراسة كيفية تنفيذ ذلك. نقلا عن النظريات الاقتصادية لآرثر لافر, Reagan promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt.[170] His policy of "peace through strength" resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a 40 percent real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.[171]
During Reagan's presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered significantly with the signing of the Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981,[172] which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from 70 percent to 50 percent over three years (as part of a "5–10–10" plan),[173] and the lowest bracket from 14 percent to 11 percent. Other tax increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan ensured, however, that tax revenues over his two terms were 18.2 percent of GDP as compared to 18.1 percent over the 40 years of 1970–2010.[174] The 1981 tax act also required that exemptions and brackets be indexed for inflation starting in 1985.[173]
Conversely, Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Social Security, and the Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA).[175][176] TEFRA was the "largest peacetime tax increase in American history".[176][177][178][179] Gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered strongly after the early 1980s recession ended in 1982, and grew during his eight years in office at an annual rate of 7.9 percent per year, with a high of 12.2 percent growth in 1981.[180] Unemployment peaked at 10.8 percent monthly rate in December 1982—higher than any time since the Great Depression—then dropped during the rest of Reagan's presidency.[181] Sixteen million new jobs were created, while inflation significantly decreased.[182] The Tax Reform Act of 1986, another bipartisan effort championed by Reagan, simplified the tax code by reducing the number of tax brackets to four and slashing several tax breaks. The top rate was dropped to 28 percent, but capital gains taxes were increased on those with the highest incomes from 20 percent to 28 percent. The increase of the lowest tax bracket from 11 percent to 15 percent was more than offset by the expansion of personal exemption, standard deduction, and earned income tax credit. The net result was the removal of six million poor Americans from the income tax roll and a reduction of income tax liability at all income levels.[183][184]
The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills was a 1 percent decrease in government revenues when compared to Treasury Department revenue estimates from the administration's first post-enactment January budgets.[185] However, federal income tax receipts increased from 1980 to 1989, rising from $308.7 billion to $549 billion[186] or an average annual rate of 8.2 percent (2.5 percent attributed to higher Social Security receipts), and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7.1 percent.[187][188]
Reagan's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment, which would then lead to higher employment and wages. Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics"—the belief that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle-down" effect reaching the poor.[189] Questions arose whether Reagan's policies benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty,[190] and many poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their struggles.[190] These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan's economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $3.35 an hour, slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60 percent, cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies in half, and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development Block Grant program.[191] Along with Reagan's 1981 cut in the top regular tax rate on unearned income, he reduced the maximum capital gains rate to 20 percent.[192] Reagan later set tax rates on capital gains at the same level as the rates on ordinary income like salaries and wages, with both topping out at 28 percent.[193] Reagan is viewed as an antitax hero despite raising taxes eleven times throughout his presidency, all in the name of fiscal responsibility.[194] According to Paul Krugman, "Over all, the 1982 tax increase undid about a third of the 1981 cut; as a share of GDP, the increase was substantially larger than Mr. Clinton's 1993 tax increase."[195] According to historian and domestic policy adviser Bruce Bartlett, Reagan's tax increases throughout his presidency took back half of the 1981 tax cut.[196]
Reagan was opposed to government intervention, and he cut the budgets of non-military[197] programs[198] including Medicaid, food stamps, federal education programs[197] and the EPA.[199] He protected entitlement programs such as Social Security and Medicare,[200] but his administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities from the Social Security disability rolls.[201]
The administration's stance toward the savings and loan industry contributed to the savings and loan crisis. A minority of the critics of Reaganomics also suggested that the policies partially influenced the stock market crash of 1987,[202] but there is no consensus regarding a single source for the crash.[203] To cover newly spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion.[204] Reagan described the new debt as the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.[182]
He reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve, and in 1987 he appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed him. Reagan ended the price controls on domestic oil that had contributed to the energy crises of 1973–1974 and the summer of 1979.[205][206] The price of oil subsequently dropped, and there were no fuel shortages like those in the 1970s.[206] Reagan also fulfilled a 1980 campaign promise to repeal the windfall profits tax in 1988, which had previously increased dependence on foreign oil.[207] Some economists, such as Nobel Prize winners Milton Friedman and Robert Mundell, argue that Reagan's tax policies invigorated America's economy and contributed to the economic boom of the 1990s.[208] Other economists, such as Nobel Prize winner Robert Solow, argue that Reagan's deficits were a major reason his successor, George H. W. Bush, reneged on his campaign promise and resorted to raising taxes.[208]
During Reagan's presidency, a program was initiated within the United States Intelligence Community to ensure America's economic strength. The program, Project Socrates, developed and demonstrated the means required for the United States to generate and lead the next evolutionary leap in technology acquisition and utilization for a competitive advantage—automated innovation. To ensure that the United States acquired the maximum benefit from automated innovation, Reagan, during his second term, had an executive order drafted to create a new federal agency to implement the Project Socrates results on a nationwide basis. However, Reagan's term came to an end before the executive order could be coordinated and signed, and the incoming Bush administration, labeling Project Socrates as "industrial policy", had it terminated.[209][210]
Civil rights
The Reagan administration was often criticized for inadequately enforcing, if not actively undermining, civil rights legislation.[211][212] In 1982, he signed a bill extending the Voting Rights Act for 25 years after a grass-roots lobbying and legislative campaign forced him to abandon his plan to ease that law's restrictions.[213] He also signed legislation establishing a federal Martin Luther King holiday, though he did so with reservations.[214] In March 1988, he vetoed the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, but his veto was overridden by Congress. Reagan had argued that the legislation infringed on states' rights and the rights of churches and business owners.[215]
Escalation of the Cold War
Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the policy of détente that began during the Carter administration, following the Afghan Saur Revolution and subsequent Soviet invasion.[217] He ordered a massive buildup of the United States Armed Forces[171] and implemented new policies that were directed towards the Soviet Union; he revived the B-1 Lancer program that had been canceled by the Carter administration, and he produced the MX missile.[218] In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany.[219] In 1982 Reagan tried to cut off Moscow's access to hard currency by impeding its proposed gas line to Western Europe. It hurt the Soviet economy, but it also caused ill will among American allies in Europe who counted on that revenue. Reagan retreated on this issue.[220][221]
In 1984, journalist Nicholas Lemann interviewed Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and summarized the strategy of the Reagan administration to roll back the Soviet Union:
Their society is economically weak, and it lacks the wealth, education, and technology to enter the information age. They have thrown everything into military production, and their society is starting to show terrible stress as a result. They can't sustain military production the way we can. Eventually it will break them, and then there will be just one superpower in a safe world—if, only if, we can keep spending.[222]
Lemann noted that when he wrote that in 1984, he thought the Reaganites were living in a fantasy world. But by 2016, Lemann stated that the passage represents "a fairly uncontroversial description of what Reagan actually did".[222]
Reagan and the United Kingdom's prime minister Margaret Thatcher both denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms.[223] In a famous address on June 8, 1982, to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster, Reagan said, "the march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history."[216][224][225] On March 3, 1983, he predicted that communism would collapse, stating, "Communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages even now are being written."[226] In a speech to the National Association of Evangelicals on March 8, 1983, Reagan called the Soviet Union "an evil empire".[227]
After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near Moneron Island on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 people, including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald, Reagan labeled the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned "against the world and the moral precepts which guide human relations among people everywhere".[228] The Reagan administration responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air service to the United States and dropped several agreements being negotiated with the Soviets, wounding them financially.[228] As a result of the shootdown, and the cause of KAL 007's going astray thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system, Reagan announced on September 16, 1983, that the Global Positioning System would be made available for civilian use, free of charge, once completed in order to avert similar navigational errors in the future.[229][230]
Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine, Reagan and his administration also provided overt and covert aid to anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to "rollback" Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.[231] However, in a break from the Carter administration's policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan Relations Act, Reagan also agreed with the communist government in China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan.[232]
Reagan deployed the CIA's Special Activities Division to Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were instrumental in training, equipping and leading Mujahideen forces against the Soviet Army.[233][234] President Reagan's Covert Action program has been given credit for assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan,[235] though some of the United States funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to U.S. troops in the 2001 War in Afghanistan.[236] The CIA also began sharing information with the Iranian government which it was secretly courting. In one instance, in 1982, this practice enabled the government to identify and purge communists from its ministries and to virtually eliminate the pro-Soviet infrastructure in Iran.[237]
In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), a defense project[238] that would have used ground- and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles.[239] Reagan believed that this defense shield could make nuclear war impossible.[238][240] There was much disbelief surrounding the program's scientific feasibility, leading opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars" and argue that its technological objective was unattainable.[238] The Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would have;[241] leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in jeopardy".[242] For those reasons, David Gergen, a former aide to President Reagan, believes that in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.[243]
Though supported by leading American conservatives who argued that Reagan's foreign policy strategy was essential to protecting U.S. security interests, critics labeled the administration's foreign policy initiatives as aggressive and imperialistic, and chided them as "warmongering".[241] The administration was also heavily criticized for backing anti-communist leaders accused of severe human rights violations, such as Hissène Habré of Chad[244] and Efraín Ríos Montt of Guatemala.[245][246] During the 16 months (1982–1983) Montt was President of Guatemala, the Guatemalan military was accused of genocide for massacres of members of the Ixil people and other indigenous groups. Reagan had said that Montt was getting a "bum rap",[247] and described him as "a man of great personal integrity".[248] Previous human rights violations had prompted the United States to cut off aid to the Guatemalan government, but the Reagan administration appealed to Congress to restart military aid. Although unsuccessful with that, the administration was successful in providing nonmilitary assistance such as USAID.[247][249]
Lebanese Civil War
With the approval of Congress, Reagan sent forces to Lebanon in 1983 to reduce the threat of the Lebanese Civil War. The American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational force during the Lebanese Civil War, were attacked on October 23, 1983. The Beirut barracks bombing killed 241 American servicemen and wounded more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber.[250] Reagan sent in the USS New Jersey battleship to shell Syrian positions in Lebanon. He then withdrew all the Marines from Lebanon.[251]
Invasion of Grenada
On October 25, 1983, Reagan ordered U.S. forces to invade Grenada (codenamed "Operation Urgent Fury") where a 1979 coup d'état had established an independent non-aligned Marxist–Leninist government. A formal appeal from the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) led to the intervention of U.S. forces; President Reagan also cited an allegedly regional threat posed by a Soviet-Cuban military build-up in the Caribbean and concern for the safety of several hundred American medical students at St. George's University as adequate reasons to invade. Operation Urgent Fury was the first major military operation conducted by U.S. forces since the Vietnam War. Several days of fighting commenced, resulting in a U.S. victory,[252] with 19 American fatalities and 116 wounded American soldiers.[253] In mid-December, after a new government was appointed by the governor-general, U.S. forces withdrew.[252]
1984 presidential campaign
Reagan accepted the Republican nomination in the Republican convention in Dallas, Texas. He proclaimed that it was "morning again in America", regarding the recovering economy and the dominating performance by the American athletes at the 1984 Summer Olympics on home soil, among other things.[35] He became the first U.S. president to open an Olympic Games.[254] Previous Olympics taking place in the United States had been opened by either the vice president (three times) or another person in charge (twice).
Reagan's opponent in the 1984 presidential election was former vice president Walter Mondale. Following a weak performance in the first presidential debate, Reagan's ability to win another term was questioned.[255] Reagan rebounded in the second debate; confronting questions about his age, he quipped: "I will not make age an issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience". This remark generated applause and laughter, even from Mondale himself.[256]
That November, Reagan won a landslide re-election victory, carrying 49 of the 50 states. Mondale won only his home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia.[139] Reagan won 525 of the 538 electoral votes, the most of any presidential candidate in U.S. history.[257] In terms of electoral votes, this was the second-most-lopsided presidential election in modern U.S. history; Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1936 victory over Alf Landon, in which he won 98.5 percent or 523 of the then-total 531 electoral votes, ranks first.[5] Reagan won 58.8 percent of the popular vote to Mondale's 40.6 percent. His popular vote margin of victory—nearly 16.9 million votes (54.4 million for Reagan to 37.5 million for Mondale)[258][259]—was exceeded only by Richard Nixon in his 1972 victory over George McGovern.[139]
Second term
Reagan was sworn in as president for the second time on January 20, 1985, in a private ceremony at the White House. At the time, the 73-year-old Reagan was the oldest person to take the presidential oath of office; this record was later surpassed by Joe Biden, who was 78 at his inauguration in 2021.[146] Because January 20 fell on a Sunday, a public celebration was not held but took place in the Capitol rotunda the following day. January 21 was one of the coldest days on record in Washington, D.C.; due to poor weather, inaugural celebrations were held inside the Capitol. In the weeks that followed, Reagan shook up his staff somewhat, moving White House Chief of Staff James Baker to Secretary of the Treasury and naming Treasury Secretary Donald Regan, a former Merrill Lynch officer, Chief of Staff.[260]
War on drugs
In response to concerns about the increasing crack epidemic, Reagan began the war on drugs campaign in 1982, a policy led by the federal government to reduce the illegal drug trade. Though Nixon had previously declared war on drugs, Reagan advocated more aggressive policies.[261] He said that "drugs were menacing our society" and promised to fight for drug-free schools and workplaces, expanded drug treatment, stronger law enforcement and drug interdiction efforts, and greater public awareness.[262][263]
In 1986, Reagan signed a drug enforcement bill that budgeted $1.7 billion (equivalent to $4 billion in 2020) to fund the war on drugs and specified a mandatory minimum penalty for drug offenses.[264] The bill was criticized for promoting significant racial disparities in the prison population,[264] and critics also charged that the policies did little to reduce the availability of drugs on the street while resulting in a tremendous financial burden for America.[265] Defenders of the effort point to success in reducing rates of adolescent drug use which they attribute to the Reagan administrations policies:[266] marijuana use among high-school seniors declined from 33 percent in 1980 to 12 percent in 1991.[267] First Lady Nancy Reagan made the war on drugs her main priority by founding the "Just Say No" drug awareness campaign, which aimed to discourage children and teenagers from engaging in recreational drug use by offering various ways of saying "no". Nancy Reagan traveled to 65 cities in 33 states, raising awareness about the dangers of drugs, including alcohol.[268]
Response to AIDS epidemic
According to AIDS activist organizations such as ACT UP and scholars such as Don Francis and Peter S. Arno, the Reagan administration largely ignored the AIDS crisis, which began to unfold in the United States in 1981, the same year Reagan took office.[269][270][271][272] They also claim that AIDS research was chronically underfunded during Reagan's administration, and requests for more funding by doctors at the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) were routinely denied.[273][274]
By the time President Reagan gave his first prepared speech on the epidemic, six years into his presidency, 36,058 Americans had been diagnosed with AIDS, and 20,849 had died of it.[274] By 1989, the year Reagan left office, more than 100,000 people had been diagnosed with AIDS in the United States, and more than 59,000 of them had died of it.[275]
Reagan administration officials countered criticisms of neglect by noting that federal funding for AIDS-related programs rose over his presidency, from a few hundred thousand dollars in 1982 to $2.3 billion in 1989.[276] In a September 1985 press conference, Reagan said: "this is a top priority with us...there's no question about the seriousness of this and the need to find an answer."[277] Gary Bauer, Reagan's domestic policy adviser near the end of his second term, argued that Reagan's belief in cabinet government led him to assign the job of speaking out against AIDS to his Surgeon General of the United States and the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services.[278]
Addressing apartheid
From the late 1960s onward, the American public grew increasingly vocal in its opposition to the apartheid policy of the white-minority government of South Africa, and in its insistence that the U.S. impose economic and diplomatic sanctions on South Africa.[279] The strength of the anti-apartheid opposition surged during Reagan's first term in office as its component disinvestment from South Africa movement, which had been in existence for quite some years, gained critical mass following in the United States, particularly on college campuses and among mainline Protestant denominations.[280][281] President Reagan was opposed to divestiture because, as he wrote in a letter to Sammy Davis Jr., it "would hurt the very people we are trying to help and would leave us no contact within South Africa to try and bring influence to bear on the government". He also noted the fact that the "American-owned industries there employ more than 80,000 blacks" and that their employment practices were "very different from the normal South African customs".[282]
As an alternative strategy for opposing apartheid, the Reagan Administration developed a policy of constructive engagement with the South African government as a means of encouraging it to move away from apartheid gradually. It was part of a larger initiative designed to foster peaceful economic development and political change throughout southern Africa.[279] This policy, however, engendered much public criticism and renewed calls for the imposition of stringent sanctions.[283] In response, Reagan announced the imposition of new sanctions on the South African government, including an arms embargo in late 1985.[284] These sanctions were, however, seen as weak by anti-apartheid activists, and as insufficient by the president's opponents in Congress.[283] In August 1986, Congress approved the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act, which included tougher sanctions. Reagan vetoed the act, but the veto was overridden by Congress. Afterward, Reagan reiterated that his administration and "all America" opposed apartheid, and said, "the debate ... was not whether or not to oppose apartheid but, instead, how best to oppose it and how best to bring freedom to that troubled country." Several European countries as well as Japan soon followed the U.S. lead and imposed their sanctions on South Africa.[285]
Libya bombing
Relations between Libya and the United States under President Reagan were continually contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in 1981; by 1982, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by the CIA to be, along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro, part of a group known as the "unholy trinity" and was also labeled as "our international public enemy number one" by a CIA official.[286] These tensions were later revived in early April 1986, when a bomb exploded in a Berlin discothèque, resulting in the injury of 63 American military personnel and death of one serviceman. Stating that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed the "terrorist bombing", Reagan authorized the use of force against the country. In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the United States launched a series of airstrikes on ground targets in Libya.[287][288]
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher allowed the U.S. Air Force to use Britain's air bases to launch the attack, on the justification that the UK was supporting America's right to self-defense under Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.[288] The attack was designed to halt Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism", offering him "incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior".[287] The president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the attacks had commenced, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office."[288] The attack was condemned by many countries. By a vote of 79 in favor to 28 against with 33 abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted resolution 41/38 which "condemns the military attack perpetrated against the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya on April 15, 1986, which constitutes a violation of the Charter of the United Nations and of international law".[289]
Immigration
Reagan signed the Immigration Reform and Control Act in 1986. The act made it illegal to knowingly hire or recruit illegal immigrants, required employers to attest to their employee's immigration status, and granted amnesty to approximately three million illegal immigrants who entered the United States before January 1, 1982, and had lived in the country continuously. Upon signing the act at a ceremony held beside the newly refurbished Statue of Liberty, Reagan said, "The legalization provisions in this act will go far to improve the lives of a class of individuals who now must hide in the shadows, without access to many of the benefits of a free and open society. Very soon, many of these men and women will be able to step into the sunlight and, ultimately, if they choose, they may become Americans."[290] Reagan also said, "The employer sanctions program is the keystone and major element. It will remove the incentive for illegal immigration by eliminating the job opportunities which draw illegal aliens here."[290]
Iran–Contra affair
In 1986, the Iran–Contra affair became a problem for the administration stemming from the use of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War to fund the Contra rebels fighting against the government in Nicaragua, which had been specifically outlawed by an act of Congress.[291][292] The affair became a political scandal in the United States during the 1980s.[293] The International Court of Justice, whose jurisdiction to decide the case was disputed by the United States,[294] ruled that the United States had violated international law and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways.[295][296] Reagan later withdrew the agreement between the United States and the International Court of Justice.[297]
President Reagan professed that he was unaware of the plot's existence. He opened his own investigation and appointed two Republicans and one Democrat, John Tower, Brent Scowcroft and Edmund Muskie, respectively, to investigate the scandal. The commission could not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from managing his staff, making the diversion of funds possible.[298] A separate report by Congress concluded that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have."[298] Reagan's popularity declined from 67 percent to 46 percent in less than a week, the most significant and quickest decline ever for a president.[299] The scandal resulted in eleven convictions and fourteen indictments within Reagan's staff.[300]
Many Central Americans criticize Reagan for his support of the Contras, calling him an anti-communist zealot, blinded to human rights abuses, while others say he "saved Central America".[301] Daniel Ortega, Sandinistan and president of Nicaragua, said that he hoped God would forgive Reagan for his "dirty war against Nicaragua".[301]
In 1988, near the end of the Iran–Iraq War, the U.S. Navy guided-missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 civilian passengers. The incident further worsened already tense Iran–United States relations.[302]
Decline of the Soviet Union and thaw in relations
Until the early 1980s, the United States had relied on the qualitative superiority of its weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets, but the gap had been narrowed.[303] Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military spending after President Reagan's military buildup,[304] their enormous military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the Soviet economy. At the same time, oil prices in 1985 fell to one third of the previous level; oil was the primary source of Soviet export revenues. These factors contributed to a stagnant Soviet economy during Mikhail Gorbachev's tenure.[305]
Meanwhile, Reagan escalated the rhetoric. In his famous 1983 speech to religious fundamentalists, he outlined his strategy for victory. First, he labeled the Soviet system an "Evil Empire" and a failure—its demise would be a godsend for the world. Second, Reagan explained his strategy was an arms buildup that would leave the Soviets far behind, with no choice but to negotiate arms reduction. Finally, displaying his characteristic optimism, he praised liberal democracy and promised that such a system eventually would triumph over Soviet communism.[306][307]
Reagan appreciated the revolutionary change in the direction of the Soviet policy with Mikhail Gorbachev, and shifted to diplomacy, intending to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms agreements.[308] He and Gorbachev held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988: the first in Geneva, Switzerland, the second in Reykjavík, Iceland, the third in Washington, D.C., and the fourth in Moscow.[309] Reagan believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end of Communism.[310] The critical summit was at Reykjavík in October 1986, where they met alone, with translators but with no aides. To the astonishment of the world, and the chagrin of Reagan's most conservative supporters, they agreed to abolish all nuclear weapons. Gorbachev then asked the end of SDI. Reagan said no, claiming that it was defensive only, and that he would share the secrets with the Soviets. No deal was achieved.[311]
Speaking at the Berlin Wall on June 12, 1987, five years after his first visit to West Berlin as president, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to go further, saying "General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization, come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" [312] Later, in November 1989, East German authorities began allowing citizens to pass freely through border checkpoints,[313][314] and began dismantling the Wall the following June;[315][316] its demolition was completed in 1992.[315][316]
At Gorbachev's visit to Washington in December 1987, he and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty) at the White House, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons.[317] The two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, or START I; Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms Reduction Talks.[318]
When Reagan visited Moscow for the fourth summit in 1988, he was viewed as a celebrity by the Soviets. A journalist asked the president if he still considered the Soviet Union the evil empire. "No," he replied, "I was talking about another time, another era."[319] At Gorbachev's request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at the Moscow State University.[320]
Health
Early in his presidency, Reagan started wearing a custom-made, technologically advanced hearing aid, first in his right ear[321] and later in his left ear as well.[322] His decision to go public in 1983 regarding his wearing the small, audio-amplifying device boosted their sales.[323]
On July 13, 1985, Reagan underwent surgery at Bethesda Naval Hospital to remove cancerous polyps from his colon. He relinquished presidential power to the vice president for eight hours in a similar procedure as outlined in the 25th Amendment, which he specifically avoided invoking.[324] The surgery lasted just under three hours and was successful.[325] Reagan resumed the powers of the presidency later that day.[326] In August of that year, he underwent an operation to remove skin cancer cells from his nose.[327] In October, more skin cancer cells were detected on his nose and removed.[328]
In January 1987, Reagan underwent surgery for an enlarged prostate that caused further worries about his health. No cancerous growths were found, and he was not sedated during the operation.[329] In July of that year, aged 76, he underwent a third skin cancer operation on his nose.[330]
On January 7, 1989, Reagan underwent surgery at Walter Reed Army Medical Center to repair a Dupuytren's contracture of the ring finger of his left hand. The surgery lasted for more than three hours and was performed under regional anesthesia.[331]
Judiciary
During the 1980 presidential campaign, Reagan pledged that he would appoint the first female Supreme Court Justice if given the opportunity.[332] That opportunity came during his first year in office when Associate Justice Potter Stewart retired; Reagan selected Sandra Day O'Connor, who was confirmed unanimously by the Senate. In his second term, Reagan had three opportunities to fill a Supreme Court vacancy. When Chief Justice Warren E. Burger retired in September 1986, Reagan nominated incumbent Associate Justice William Rehnquist to succeed Burger as Chief Justice (the appointment of an incumbent associate justice as chief justice is subject to a separate confirmation process). Then, following Rehnquist's confirmation, the president named Antonin Scalia to fill the consequent associate justice vacancy.[333] Reagan's final opportunity to fill a vacancy arose in mid-1987 when Associate Justice Lewis F. Powell Jr. announced his intention to retire. Reagan initially chose Conservative jurist Robert Bork to succeed Powell. Bork's nomination was strongly opposed by civil and women's rights groups, and by Senate Democrats.[334] That October, after a contentious Senate debate, the nomination was rejected by a roll call vote of 42–58.[335] Soon afterward, Reagan announced his intention to nominate Douglas Ginsburg to the Court. However, before his name was submitted to the Senate, Ginsburg withdrew himself from consideration.[336] Anthony Kennedy was subsequently nominated and confirmed as Powell's successor.[337]
Along with his four Supreme Court appointments, Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States courts of appeals, and 290 judges to the United States district courts. Early in his presidency, Reagan appointed Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. of San Diego as the first African American to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights. Pendleton tried to steer the commission into a conservative direction in line with Reagan's views on social and civil rights policy during his tenure from 1981 until his sudden death in 1988. Pendleton soon aroused the ire of many civil rights advocates and feminists when he ridiculed the comparable worth proposal as being "Looney Tunes".[338][339][340]
Post-presidency (1989–2004)
Assault
On April 13, 1992, Reagan was assaulted by an anti-nuclear protester during a luncheon speech while accepting an award from the National Association of Broadcasters in Las Vegas.[341] The protester, Richard Springer, smashed a two-foot-high (61 cm), 30-pound (14 kg) crystal statue of an eagle that the broadcasters had given the former president. Flying shards of glass hit Reagan, but he was not injured. Using media credentials, Springer intended to announce government plans for an underground nuclear weapons test in the Nevada desert the following day.[342] Springer was the founder of an anti-nuclear group called the 100th Monkey. Following his arrest on assault charges, a Secret Service spokesman could not explain how Springer got past the federal agents who guarded Reagan's life at all times.[343] Later, Springer pled guilty to reduced charges and said he had not meant to hurt Reagan through his actions. He pled guilty to a misdemeanor federal charge of interfering with the Secret Service, but other felony charges of assault and resisting officers were dropped.[344]
Public speaking
After leaving office in 1989, the Reagans purchased a home in Bel Air, Los Angeles, in addition to the Reagan Ranch in Santa Barbara. They regularly attended Bel Air Church[345] and occasionally made appearances on behalf of the Republican Party; Reagan delivered a well-received speech at the 1992 Republican National Convention.[346] Previously, on November 4, 1991, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library was dedicated and opened to the public. Five presidents and six first ladies attended the dedication ceremonies, marking the first time that five presidents were gathered in the same location.[347] Reagan continued to speak publicly in favor of the Brady Bill;[348] a constitutional amendment requiring a balanced budget; and the repeal of the 22nd Amendment, which prohibits anyone from serving more than two terms as president.[349] In 1992 Reagan established the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award with the newly formed Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation.[350] His final public speech occurred on February 3, 1994, during a tribute to him in Washington, D.C.; his last major public appearance was at the funeral of Richard Nixon on April 27, 1994.
Alzheimer's disease
Announcement and reaction (1994)
In August 1994, at the age of 83, Reagan was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease,[351] an incurable neurodegenerative disease which destroys brain cells and ultimately causes death.[351][352] In November of that year, he informed the nation of the diagnosis through a handwritten letter,[351] writing in part:
I have recently been told that I am one of the millions of Americans who will be afflicted with Alzheimer's Disease ... At the moment I feel just fine. I intend to live the remainder of the years God gives me on this earth doing the things I have always done ... I now begin the journey that will lead me into the sunset of my life. I know that for America there will always be a bright dawn ahead. Thank you, my friends. May God always bless you.[353]
After his diagnosis, letters of support from well-wishers poured into his California home.[354] However, there was also speculation over how long Reagan had demonstrated symptoms of mental degeneration.[355] At a June 1981 reception for mayors, not long after the assassination attempt, Reagan greeted his Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Samuel Pierce by saying "How are you, Mr. Mayor? How are things in your city?",[356][357] although he later realized his mistake.[358] In a 2011 book titled My Father at 100, Reagan's son Ron said he had suspected early signs of his father's dementia as early as 1984;[359][360] an allegation that sparked a furious response from his brother, Michael Reagan, who accused him of “selling out his father to sell books”.[361] Ron would later temper his claims, telling The New York Times he did not believe his father was actually inhibited by Alzheimer's while in office, only that “the disease was likely present in him”, for years prior to his 1994 diagnoses.[362] In her book Reporting Live, former CBS White House correspondent Lesley Stahl recounted that in her final meeting with the president in 1986, Reagan did not seem to know who she was. Stahl wrote that she came close to reporting that Reagan was senile, but by the end of the meeting, he had regained his alertness.[363]
Lay observations that Reagan suffered from Alzheimer's while still in office have been widely refuted by medical experts, however, including the many physicians who treated Reagan both during and after his presidency.[364][365][366] Regarding his mental competency while in office, all four of Reagan's White House doctors maintained they never had any concerns "even with the hindsight of" the former president's diagnosis.[366] Neurosurgeon Daniel Ruge, who served as Physician to the President from 1981 to 1985, said that he never detected signs of the disease while speaking almost every day with Reagan.[367] John E. Hutton, who served from 1985 to 1989, said the president "absolutely" did not "show any signs of dementia or Alzheimer's".[366] Though all were familiar with the disease, none of Reagan's White House physicians was an expert in Alzheimer's specifically; an outside specialist who reviewed both Reagan's public and medical records agreed with the conclusion that he displayed no signs of dementia during his presidency.[364] Reagan's doctors said that he first began exhibiting overt symptoms of the illness in late 1992[368] or 1993,[366] several years after he had left office. An example of which may include when Reagan repeated a toast to Margaret Thatcher, with identical words and gestures, at his 82nd-birthday party on February 6, 1993.[369] Lawrence Altman (M.D.) of The New York Times, while noting that "the line between mere forgetfulness and the beginning of Alzheimer's can be fuzzy",[366] upon reviewing Reagan's medical records and interviewing his doctors agreed that no signs of dementia appear to have been present while he was in office.[365] Other staff members, former aides, and friends said they saw no indication of Alzheimer's while he was president. Reagan did experience occasional memory lapses, though, especially with names.[366]
Reagan suffered an episode of head trauma in July 1989, five years before his diagnosis. After being thrown from a horse in Mexico, a subdural hematoma was found and surgically treated later in the year.[351][352] Nancy Reagan, citing what doctors told her, asserted that her husband's 1989 fall hastened the onset of Alzheimer's disease,[352] although acute brain injury has not been conclusively proven to accelerate Alzheimer's or dementia.[370][371] Ruge said it was possible that the horse accident affected Reagan's memory.[368]
Progression (1994–2004)
As the years went on, Alzheimer's disease slowly destroyed Reagan's mental capacity.[366] He was able to recognize only a few people, including his wife, Nancy.[366] He remained active, however; he took walks through parks near his home and on beaches, played golf regularly, and until 1999 he often went to his office in nearby Century City.[366]
Reagan suffered a fall at his Bel Air home on January 13, 2001, resulting in a broken hip.[372] The fracture was repaired the following day,[373] and the 89-year-old Reagan returned home later that week, although he faced difficult physical therapy at home.[374] On February 6, 2001, Reagan reached the age of 90, becoming only the third U.S. president after John Adams and Herbert Hoover to do so.[375] Reagan's public appearances became much less frequent with the progression of the disease, and as a result, his family decided that he would live in quiet semi-isolation with his wife Nancy. She told CNN's Larry King in 2001 that very few visitors were allowed to see her husband because she felt that "Ronnie would want people to remember him as he was."[376] After her husband's diagnosis and death, Nancy Reagan became a stem-cell research advocate, asserting that it could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's.[377]
Death and funeral
Reagan died of pneumonia, complicated by Alzheimer's disease,[378] at his home in the Bel Air district of Los Angeles, California on the afternoon of June 5, 2004.[379] A short time after his death, Nancy Reagan released a statement saying, "My family and I would like the world to know that President Ronald Reagan has died after 10 years of Alzheimer's disease at 93 years of age. We appreciate everyone's prayers."[379] Speaking in Paris, France, President George W. Bush called Reagan's death "a sad hour in the life of America".[380] He also declared June 11 a national day of mourning.[381]
Reagan's body was taken to the Kingsley and Gates Funeral Home in Santa Monica, California, where well-wishers paid tribute by laying flowers and American flags in the grass.[382] On June 7, his body was transferred to the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, where a brief family funeral, conducted by Pastor Michael Wenning, was held. Reagan's body lay in repose in the Library lobby until June 9; over 100,000 people viewed the coffin.[383] On June 9, Reagan's body was flown to Washington, D.C., where he became the tenth U.S. president to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol;[384] in thirty-four hours, 104,684 people filed past the coffin.[385]
On June 11, a state funeral was conducted in the Washington National Cathedral, presided over by President George W. Bush. Eulogies were given by former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher,[386] former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, and both former President George H. W. Bush and President George W. Bush. Also in attendance were Mikhail Gorbachev and many world leaders, including British Prime Minister Tony Blair; Prince Charles, representing his mother Queen Elizabeth II; German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder; Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi; and interim presidents Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan and Ghazi al-Yawer of Iraq.[387]
After the funeral, the Reagan entourage was flown back to the Ronald W. Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California, where another service was held, and President Reagan was interred.[388] At the time of his death, Reagan was the longest-lived president in U.S. history, having lived 93 years and 120 days (2 years, 8 months, and 23 days longer than John Adams, whose record he surpassed). He was also the first U.S. president to die in the 21st century. Reagan's burial site is inscribed with the words he delivered at the opening of the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library: "I know in my heart that man is good, that what is right will always eventually triumph and that there is purpose and worth to each and every life."[389]
Legacy
Since Reagan left office in 1989, substantial debate has occurred among scholars, historians, and the general public surrounding his legacy.[390] Supporters have pointed to a more efficient and prosperous economy as a result of Reagan's economic policies,[391] foreign policy triumphs including a peaceful end to the Cold War,[392] and a restoration of American pride and morale.[144] Proponents say that he had an unabated and passionate love for the United States which restored faith in the American Dream,[393] after a decline in American confidence and self-respect under Jimmy Carter's perceived weak leadership, particularly during the Iran hostage crisis, as well as his gloomy, dreary outlook for the future of the United States during the 1980 election.[394] Critics point out that Reagan's economic policies resulted in rising budget deficits,[182] a wider gap in wealth, and an increase in homelessness[191] and that the Iran–Contra affair lowered American credibility.[395]
Opinions of Reagan's legacy among the country's leading policymakers and journalists differ as well. Edwin Feulner, president of The Heritage Foundation, said that Reagan "helped create a safer, freer world" and said of his economic policies: "He took an America suffering from 'malaise' ... and made its citizens believe again in their destiny."[396] However, Mark Weisbrot, co-Director of the Center for Economic and Policy Research, contended that Reagan's "economic policies were mostly a failure"[397] while Howard Kurtz of The Washington Post opined that Reagan was "a far more controversial figure in his time than the largely gushing obits on television would suggest".[398]
Despite the continuing debate surrounding his legacy, many conservative and liberal scholars agree that Reagan has been the most influential president since Franklin D. Roosevelt, leaving his imprint on American politics, diplomacy, culture, and economics through his effective communication and pragmatic compromising.[399] As summarized by British historian M. J. Heale, since Reagan left office, historians have reached a broad consensus that he rehabilitated conservatism, turned the nation to the right, practiced a considerably pragmatic conservatism that balanced ideology and the constraints of politics, revived faith in the presidency and American exceptionalism, and contributed to victory in the Cold War.[400][401]
Cold War
In 2017, a C-SPAN survey of scholars ranked Reagan in terms of leadership in comparison with all 42 presidents. He ranked number nine in international relations.[402][403]
Reagan's major achievement was the end of the Cold War as he left office. Furthermore, the USSR and Soviet-sponsored Communist movements worldwide were falling apart—and collapsed completely three years after he left office. The U.S. thus became the only superpower. His admirers say he won the Cold War.[404] After 40 years of high tension, the USSR pulled back in the last years of Reagan's second term. In 1989, the Kremlin lost control of all its East European satellites. In 1991, Communism was overthrown in the USSR, and on December 26, 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. The resulting states were no threat to the United States. Reagan's exact role is debated, with many believing that Reagan's defense policies, economic policies, military policies and hard-line rhetoric against the Soviet Union and Communism—together with his summits with General Secretary Gorbachev—played a significant part in ending the Cold War.[190][308]
He was the first president to reject containment and détente and to put into practice the concept that the Soviet Union could be defeated rather than simply negotiated with, a post-Détente strategy,[308] a conviction that was vindicated by Gennadi Gerasimov, the Foreign Ministry spokesman under Gorbachev, who said that the Strategic Defense Initiative was "very successful blackmail. ...The Soviet economy couldn't endure such competition."[405] Reagan's aggressive rhetoric toward the USSR had mixed effects; Jeffery W. Knopf observes that being labeled "evil" probably made no difference to the Soviets but gave encouragement to the East-European citizens opposed to communism.[308]
General Secretary Gorbachev said of his former rival's Cold War role: "[He was] a man who was instrumental in bringing about the end of the Cold War",[406] and deemed him "a great president".[406] Gorbachev does not acknowledge a win or loss in the war, but rather a peaceful end; he said he was not intimidated by Reagan's harsh rhetoric.[407] Margaret Thatcher, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, said of Reagan, "he warned that the Soviet Union had an insatiable drive for military power ... but he also sensed it was being eaten away by systemic failures impossible to reform."[408] She later said, "Ronald Reagan had a higher claim than any other leader to have won the Cold War for liberty and he did it without a shot being fired."[409] Said Brian Mulroney, former Prime Minister of Canada: "He enters history as a strong and dramatic player [in the Cold War]."[410] Former President Lech Wałęsa of Poland acknowledged, "Reagan was one of the world leaders who made a major contribution to communism's collapse."[411] Professor Jeffrey Knopf has argued that Reagan's leadership was only one of several causes of the end of the Cold War.[308] President Harry S. Truman's policy of containment is also regarded as a force behind the fall of the USSR, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan undermined the Soviet system itself.[412]
Domestic and political legacy
Reagan reshaped the Republican party, led the modern conservative movement, and altered the political dynamic of the United States.[413] More men voted Republican under Reagan, and Reagan tapped into religious voters.[413] The so-called "Reagan Democrats" were a result of his presidency.[413]
After leaving office, Reagan became an iconic influence within the Republican Party.[414] His policies and beliefs have been frequently invoked by Republican presidential candidates since 1988.[35] The 2008 Republican presidential candidates were no exception, for they aimed to liken themselves to him during the primary debates, even imitating his campaign strategies.[415] Republican nominee John McCain frequently said that he came to office as "a foot soldier in the Reagan Revolution".[416] Reagan's most famous statement regarding the role of smaller government was that "Government is not a solution to our problem, government is the problem."[417] Praise for Reagan's accomplishments was part of standard GOP rhetoric a quarter-century after his retirement. Washington Post reporter Carlos Lozada noted how the main Republican contenders in the 2016 presidential race adopted "standard GOP Gipper worship".[418]
The period of American history most dominated by Reagan and his policies that concerned taxes, welfare, defense, the federal judiciary and the Cold War is known today as the Reagan Era. This time period emphasized that the conservative "Reagan Revolution", led by Reagan, had a permanent impact on the United States in domestic and foreign policy. The Bill Clinton administration is often treated as an extension of the Reagan Era, as is the George W. Bush administration.[419] Historian Eric Foner noted that the Obama candidacy in 2008 "aroused a great deal of wishful thinking among those yearning for a change after nearly thirty years of Reaganism".[420]
Cultural and political image
| Date | Event | Approval (%) | Disapproval (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| March 30, 1981 | Shot by Hinckley | 73 | 19 |
| January 22, 1983 | High unemployment | 42 | 54 |
| April 26, 1986 | Libya bombing | 70 | 26 |
| February 26, 1987 | Iran–Contra affair | 44 | 51 |
| December 27–29, 1988[421] | Near end of presidency | 63 | 29 |
| N/A | Career average | 57 | 39 |
| July 30, 2001 | (Retrospective)[422] | 64 | 27 |
According to columnist Chuck Raasch, "Reagan transformed the American presidency in ways that only a few have been able to."[423] He redefined the political agenda of the times, advocating lower taxes, a conservative economic philosophy, and a stronger military.[424] His role in the Cold War further enhanced his image as a different kind of leader.[425][426] Reagan's "avuncular style, optimism, and plain-folks demeanor" also helped him turn "government-bashing into an art form".[191]
Reagan's popularity has increased since 1989. When Reagan left office in 1989, a CBS poll indicated that he held an approval rating of 68 percent. This figure equaled the approval rating of Franklin D. Roosevelt (and was later matched by Bill Clinton), as the highest rating for a departing president in the modern era.[6] Gallup polls in 2001, 2007 and 2011 ranked him number one or number two when correspondents were asked for the greatest president in history.[427] Reagan ranked third of post-World War II presidents in a 2007 Rasmussen Reports poll, fifth in a 2000 ABC poll, ninth in another 2007 Rasmussen poll, and eighth in a late-2008 poll by British newspaper The Times.[428][429][430] In a Siena College survey of over 200 historians, however, Reagan ranked sixteenth out of 42.[431][432] While the debate about Reagan's legacy is ongoing, the 2009 Annual C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leaders ranked Reagan the tenth-greatest president. The survey of leading historians rated Reagan number 11 in 2000.[433]
In 2011, the Institute for the Study of the Americas released the first-ever British academic survey to rate U.S. presidents. This poll of British specialists in U.S. history and politics placed Reagan as the eighth-greatest U.S. president.[434]
Reagan's ability to talk about substantive issues with understandable terms and to focus on mainstream American concerns earned him the laudatory moniker "The Great Communicator".[435][436][437] Of it, Reagan said, "I won the nickname the great communicator. But I never thought it was my style that made a difference—it was the content. I wasn't a great communicator, but I communicated great things."[438] His age and soft-spoken speech gave him a warm grandfatherly image.[439][440][441]
Reagan also earned the nickname "the Teflon President", in that public perceptions of him were not tarnished by the controversies that arose during his administration.[442] According to Colorado congresswoman Patricia Schroeder, who coined the phrase, the epithet referred to Reagan's ability to "do almost anything and not get blamed for it".[443]
Public reaction to Reagan was always mixed. He was the oldest president up to that time and was supported by young voters, who began an alliance that shifted many of them to the Republican Party.[444] Reagan did not fare well with minority groups in terms of approval, especially African Americans. However, his support of Israel throughout his presidency earned him support from many Jews.[445] He emphasized family values in his campaigns and during his presidency, although he was the first president to have been divorced.[446] The combination of Reagan's speaking style, unabashed patriotism, negotiation skills, as well as his savvy use of the media, played an important role in defining the 1980s and his future legacy.[447]
Reagan was known to joke frequently during his lifetime, displayed humor throughout his presidency,[448] and was famous for his storytelling.[449] His numerous jokes and one-liners have been labeled "classic quips" and "legendary".[450] Among the most notable of his jokes was one regarding the Cold War. As a microphone test in preparation for his weekly radio address in August 1984, Reagan made the following joke: "My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes."[451] Reagan's sense of humor was also observed by hundreds of Americans at Tempelhof U.S. Air Base June 12, 1987. While giving a speech celebrating the 750th anniversary of Berlin, a balloon popped in the front row. Without missing a beat, Reagan quipped "missed me", a reference to his previous assassination attempt in 1981.[452] Former aide David Gergen commented, "It was that humor ... that I think endeared people to Reagan."[243]
Reagan also had the ability to offer comfort and hope to the nation as a whole at times of tragedy. Following the disintegration of the Space Shuttle Challenger on January 28, 1986.[453] On the evening of the disaster, Reagan addressed the nation, saying:
The future doesn't belong to the fainthearted; it belongs to the brave ... We will never forget them, nor the last time we saw them, this morning, as they prepared for their journey and waved goodbye and "slipped the surly bonds of Earth" to "touch the face of God".[454]
Honors
Reagan received several awards in his pre- and post-presidential years. After his election as president, Reagan received a lifetime gold membership in the Screen Actors Guild, was inducted into the National Speakers Association Speaker Hall of Fame,[455] and received the United States Military Academy's Sylvanus Thayer Award.[456]
In 1981, Reagan was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln (the state's highest honor) by the governor of Illinois in the area of government.[457] In 1982 he was given the "Distinguished Service Medal" by the American Legion because his highest priority was the national defense.[458] In 1983, he received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award.[459] In 1989, Reagan was made an honorary knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, one of the highest British orders. This entitled him to the use of the post-nominal letters "GCB" but, as a foreign national, not to be known as "Sir Ronald Reagan". Only two U.S. presidents have received this honor since attaining office: Reagan and George H. W. Bush;[460] Dwight D. Eisenhower received his before becoming president in his capacity as a general after World War II. Reagan was also named an honorary Fellow of Keble College, Oxford. Japan awarded him the Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum in 1989; he was the second U.S. president to receive the order and the first to have it given to him for personal reasons as Eisenhower received it as a commemoration of U.S.–Japanese relations.[461] In 1990, Reagan was awarded the WPPAC's Top Honor Prize because he signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty with H.E. Mikhail Gorbachev (then president of Russia), ending the cold war.[462][463]
On January 18, 1993, Reagan received the Presidential Medal of Freedom (awarded with distinction), the highest honor that the United States can bestow, from President George H. W. Bush, his vice president and successor.[464] Reagan was also awarded the Republican Senatorial Medal of Freedom, the highest honor bestowed by Republican members of the Senate.[465]
On Reagan's 87th birthday in 1998, Washington National Airport was renamed Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport by a bill signed into law by President Bill Clinton. That year, the Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center was dedicated in Washington, D.C.[466] He was among 18 included in Gallup's most admired man and woman poll of the 20th century, from a poll conducted in the U.S. in 1999; two years later, USS Ronald Reagan was christened by Nancy Reagan and the United States Navy. It is one of few Navy ships christened in honor of a living person and the first aircraft carrier to be named in honor of a living former president.[467]
In 1998 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Reagan its Naval Heritage award for his support of the U.S. Navy and military in both his film career and while he served as president.[468]
Congress authorized the creation of the Ronald Reagan Boyhood Home in Dixon, Illinois in 2002, pending federal purchase of the property.[469] On May 16 of that year, Nancy Reagan accepted the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor bestowed by Congress, on behalf of the president and herself.[470]
After Reagan's death, the United States Postal Service issued a President Ronald Reagan commemorative postage stamp in 2005.[471] Later in the year, CNN, along with the editors of Time magazine, named him the "most fascinating person" of the network's first 25 years;[472] Time listed Reagan one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century as well.[473] The Discovery Channel asked its viewers to vote for The Greatest American in June 2005; Reagan placed in first place, ahead of Abraham Lincoln and Martin Luther King Jr.[474]
In 2006, Reagan was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum.[475] Every year from 2002, California governors Gray Davis and Arnold Schwarzenegger proclaimed February 6 "Ronald Reagan Day" in the state of California in honor of their most famous predecessor.[476] In 2010, Schwarzenegger signed Senate Bill 944, authored by Senator George Runner, to make every February 6 Ronald Reagan Day in California.[477]
In 2007, Polish President Lech Kaczyński posthumously conferred on Reagan the highest Polish distinction, the Order of the White Eagle, saying that Reagan had inspired the Polish people to work for change and helped to unseat the repressive communist regime; Kaczyński said it "would not have been possible if it was not for the tough-mindedness, determination, and feeling of mission of President Ronald Reagan".[478] Reagan backed the nation of Poland throughout his presidency, supporting the anti-communist Solidarity movement, along with Pope John Paul II;[479] the Ronald Reagan Park, a public facility in Gdańsk, was named in his honor.
On June 3, 2009, Nancy Reagan unveiled a statue of her late husband in the United States Capitol rotunda. The statue represents the state of California in the National Statuary Hall Collection. After Reagan's death, both major American political parties agreed to erect a statue of Reagan in the place of that of Thomas Starr King.[480] The day before, President Obama signed the Ronald Reagan Centennial Commission Act into law, establishing a commission to plan activities to mark the upcoming centenary of Reagan's birth.[481]
On Independence Day 2011 a statue to Reagan was unveiled outside the U.S. embassy in London. The unveiling was supposed to be attended by Reagan's wife Nancy, but she did not attend; former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice took her place and read a statement on her behalf. President Reagan's friend and British prime minister during his presidency, Margaret Thatcher, was also unable to attend due to frail health.[482]
In November 2018, a feature film named Reagan received funding from TriStar Global Entertainment with Dennis Quaid portraying Reagan.[483][484] This would be the second time Quaid portrayed a U.S. president.[485] Reagan was scheduled to begin filming in May 2020, but was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[486]
Gallery
1920s. As a teenager, in Dixon, Illinois
c. 1960. Hosting General Electric Theater
1976. At his home at Rancho del Cielo
See also
- Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan
- Electoral history of Ronald Reagan
- Reagan (2011 film)
- Reagan (2022 film)
- Reagan administration scandals
Citations
- ^ Surpassed by Donald Trump upon his 2017 inauguration.
- ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 11, 1995). "Robert H. Finch, Lt. Gov. Under Reagan, Dies : Politics: Leader in California GOP was 70. He also served in Nixon's Cabinet and as President's special counselor and campaign manager". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 4, 2020.
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General sources
- Beschloss, Michael (2008). Presidential Courage: Brave Leaders and How they Changed America 1789–1989. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-5744-2.
- Brands, H.W. Reagan: The Life (2015)
- Bumgarner, John R. (1994). The Health of the Presidents: The 41 United States Presidents Through 1993 from a Physician's Point of View. Jefferson, NC: MacFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-89950-956-3.
- Cannon, Lou (2000) [1991]. President Reagan: The Role of a Lifetime. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-91-1.
- Cannon, Lou; Beschloss, Michael (2001). Ronald Reagan: The Presidential Portfolio: A History Illustrated from the Collection of the Ronald Reagan Library and Museum. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-891620-84-3.
- Cannon, Lou (2003). Governor Reagan: His Rise to Power. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-284-8.
- Hayward, Steven F. (2009). The Age of Reagan: The Conservative Counterrevolution: 1980–1989. ISBN 978-0-307-45369-3.
- Holden, Kenneth. Making of the Great Communicator: Ronald Reagan's Transformation From Actor To Governor (2013)
- Kengor, Paul (2004). God and Ronald Reagan: A Spiritual Life. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-057141-1.
- Pemberton, William E. (1998). Exit With Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-0096-7.
- Putnam, Jackson K. (2006). "Governor Reagan: A Reappraisal". California History. 83 (4): 24–45. doi:10.2307/25161839. JSTOR 25161839.
- Reeves, Richard (2005). President Reagan: The Triumph of Imagination. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-3022-3.
- Smith, Gary Scott (2006). Faith and the Presidency: From George Washington to George W. Bush. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press US. ISBN 9780198041153. Retrieved February 16, 2008.
- Spitz, Bob. Reagan: An American Journey (2018) 880pp; detailed biography.
- Troy, Gil (2009). The Reagan Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
- Wills, Garry (1987). Reagan's America: Innocents at Home. Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-18286-7.
Further reading
Primary sources
- Reagan, Nancy; Novak, William (1989). My Turn: The Memoirs of Nancy Reagan. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-56368-8. H. W. Brands Reagan: The Life (2015) p. 743 says "she wrote one of the most candid and at times self-critical memoirs in recent American political history."
- Reagan, Ronald (1990). An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-6716-9198-1.
- Reagan, Nancy (2002). I Love You, Ronnie: The Letters of Ronald Reagan to Nancy Reagan. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-76051-8.
- Reagan, Ronald (2003). Skinner, Kiron K.; Anderson, Annelise; Anderson, Martin (eds.). Reagan: A Life in Letters. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1967-9.
- Reagan, Ronald (2007). Brinkley, Douglas (ed.). The Reagan Diaries. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-0608-7600-5.
Historiography
- Johns, Andrew L., ed. A Companion to Ronald Reagan (Wiley-Blackwell, 2015). xiv, 682 pp.; topical essays by scholars emphasizing historiography; contents free at many libraries
- Kengor, Paul. "Reagan among the professors: His surprising reputation." Policy Review 98 (1999): 15+. Reports that " many articles in the top journals have been fair, as have a number of influential books...from respected historians, presidential scholars, and political scientists—people who were not Reagan supporters and are certainly not right-wingers.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Textbooks from Wikibooks
Official sites
- Ronald Reagan Foundation & Presidential Library
- White House biography
- Ronald Reagan & His Legacy at Eureka College
Media
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- "Life Portrait of Ronald Reagan", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, December 6, 1999
- Ronald Reagan audio archives at NPR
- Ronald Reagan Oral Histories from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
- Television ads from Reagan's 1976 campaign for the Republican presidential nomination, which among the Citizens for Reagan records at the Hoover Institution Archives
- Timeline at PBS
- "Reagan Library". YouTube.
News coverage
- "Ronald Reagan collected news and commentary". The New York Times.
- Ronald Reagan from The Washington Post
- Ronald Reagan at CNN
- Ronald Reagan collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Essays and historiographies
- Essays on Ronald Reagan, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
- The Presidents: Reagan, an American Experience documentary
Other
- Works by or about Ronald Reagan at Internet Archive
- Works by Ronald Reagan at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Ronald Reagan at Project Gutenberg
- Ronald Reagan at IMDb
- Ronald Reagan at the TCM Movie Database
- Talking About Ronald Reagan at The Interviews: An Oral History of Television
- List of honorary degrees received by Ronald Reagan
- Finding aid author: Elisa Visick. "Ronald Reagan radio programs". Prepared for the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Provo, UT.
- Ronald Reagan's Personal Manuscripts
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