الهولوكوست
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| جزء من الحرب العالمية الثانية | |
 من ألبوم أوشفيتز : اليهود المجريون يصلون إلى محتشد أوشفيتز الثاني في بولندا المحتلة من ألمانيا ، مايو 1944. تم "اختيار" معظمهم للذهاب إلى غرف الغاز . يظهر سجناء المعسكر بزيهم الرسمي المخطط. [1] | |
| موقع | الرايخ الألماني و الألمانية المحتلة أوروبا |
| وصف | الإبادة الجماعية ليهود أوروبا |
| تاريخ | 1941-1945 [2] |
نوع الهجوم | الإبادة الجماعية ، والتطهير العرقي |
| حالات الوفاة | حوالي 6 ملايين يهودي [أ] |
| الجناة | أدولف هتلر ألمانيا النازية و المتعاونين معها قائمة مرتكبي كبير من المحرقة |
| الدافع | معاداة السامية ، العنصرية |
| المحاكمات | محاكمات نورمبرغ ، محاكمات نورمبرغ لاحقة ، محاكمة ادولف ايخمان ، و غيرها |
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 فئة |
المحرقة ، التي تعرف أيضا باسم المحرقة ، [ب] كان إبادة جماعية لل يهود أوروبا خلال الحرب العالمية الثانية . [3] بين 1941 و 1945، ألمانيا النازية و المتعاونين معها قتل منهجي نحو ستة ملايين اليهود عبر الألمانية المحتلة أوروبا ، [أ] حوالي ثلثي السكان اليهود في أوروبا. [ج] ونفذت جريمة قتل في مذابح و عمليات إطلاق النار الشامل . من خلال سياسة الإبادة من خلال العمل في معسكرات الاعتقال؛ وفي غرف الغاز و شاحنات الغاز في ألمانيا معسكرات الإبادة ، وعلى رأسها أوشفيتز-بيركيناو ، بلزيك ، شيلمنو ، مايدانيك ، سوبيبور و تريبلينكا في بولندا المحتلة . [5]
نفذت ألمانيا الاضطهاد على مراحل. وبعد أدولف هتلر تعيين الصورة كما المستشارة في 30 يناير عام 1933، بناء على نظام شبكة من معسكرات الاعتقال في ألمانيا عن المعارضين السياسيين وأولئك الذين يعتبرون "غير مرغوب فيه"، بدءا داخاو في 22 آذار 1933. [6] وبعد مرور تمكين قانون يوم 24 مارس ، [7] الذي أعطى هتلر صلاحيات كاملة ، بدأت الحكومة في عزل اليهود عن المجتمع المدني. وشمل ذلك مقاطعة الشركات اليهودية في أبريل 1933 وسن قوانين نورمبرغ في سبتمبر 1935. في 9-10 نوفمبر 1938 ، بعد ثمانية أشهر من ألمانياالنمسا التي تم ضمها ، تعرضت الأعمال التجارية اليهودية والمباني الأخرى للنهب أو أضرمت فيها النيران في جميع أنحاء ألمانيا والنمسا فيما أصبح يعرف باسم ليلة الكريستال ("ليلة الزجاج المكسور"). بعد غزو ألمانيا لبولندا في سبتمبر 1939 ، مما أدى إلى اندلاع الحرب العالمية الثانية ، أقام النظام أحياء يهودية لفصل اليهود. في النهاية ، تم إنشاء الآلاف من المعسكرات ومواقع الاحتجاز الأخرى في جميع أنحاء أوروبا التي تحتلها ألمانيا.
الفصل بين اليهود في غيتو بلغت ذروتها في سياسة إبادة النازيين يسمى الحل النهائي لل مسألة اليهودية ، ناقش عدد من كبار المسؤولين الحكوميين في مؤتمر وانسي في برلين في يناير كانون الثاني عام 1942. والقوات الألمانية ألقت القبض على الأراضي في الشرق ، كل المضادة كانت الإجراءات اليهودية متطرفة. تحت تنسيق قوات الأمن الخاصة ، بتوجيهات من القيادة العليا للحزب النازي ، ارتكبت عمليات القتل داخل ألمانيا نفسها ، في جميع أنحاء أوروبا المحتلة ، وداخل الأراضي التي يسيطر عليها حلفاء ألمانيا . تسمى فرق الموت شبه العسكرية وحدات القتل المتنقلة، بالتعاون مع الجيش الألماني والمتعاونين المحليين ، قتل حوالي 1.3 مليون يهودي في عمليات إطلاق نار ومذابح جماعية من صيف عام 1941. بحلول منتصف عام 1942 ، تم ترحيل الضحايا من الأحياء اليهودية في جميع أنحاء أوروبا في قطارات شحن مغلقة إلى معسكرات الإبادة حيث ، إذا لقد نجوا من الرحلة ، تعرضوا للغاز ، أو عملوا أو ضربوا حتى الموت ، أو قتلوا بسبب المرض ، أو التجارب الطبية ، أو أثناء مسيرات الموت . استمر القتل حتى نهاية الحرب العالمية الثانية في أوروبا في مايو 1945.
استهدفت اليهود الأوروبيين لإبادة كجزء من الحدث الأكبر خلال حقبة المحرقة (1933-1945)، [8] الذي ألمانيا والمتعاونين معها اضطهاد وقتل الملايين من الآخرين ، بما في ذلك العرقي البولنديين ، المدنيين السوفييت وسجناء الحرب ، في روما ، و تعطيل ، المنشقين السياسيين والدينيين ، و مثلي الجنس من الرجال . [9]
المصطلحات والنطاق
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المصطلح
أول استخدام مسجل لمصطلح محرقة بمعناه الحديث كان في عام 1895 من قبل صحيفة نيويورك تايمز لوصف مذبحة المسيحيين الأرمن من قبل المسلمين العثمانيين . [10] يأتي المصطلح من اليونانية : ὁλόκαυστος ، بالحروف اللاتينية : holókaustos ؛ ὅλος hólos ، "كامل" + καυστός kaustós ، "عرض محترق". [د] والكتاب المقدس مصطلح محرقة ( العبرية : שׁוֹאָה )، وهذا يعني "تدمير"، وأصبح معيار العبرية مصطلح لقتل يهود أوروبا. وفقا لصحيفة هآرتس ، ربما كان الكاتب يهودا إيريز أول من وصف الأحداث في ألمانيا بأنها المحرقة . استخدم دافار ولاحقًا هآرتس هذا المصطلح في سبتمبر 1939. [12] [هـ] أصبح يوم هاشوا يوم ذكرى الهولوكوست في إسرائيل في عام 1951. [14]
في 3 أكتوبر 1941 ، استخدمت اللغة العبرية الأمريكية عبارة "قبل الهولوكوست" ، على ما يبدو للإشارة إلى الوضع في فرنسا ، [15] وفي مايو 1943 أشارت صحيفة نيويورك تايمز ، التي تناقش مؤتمر برمودا ، إلى "مئات الآلاف من يهود أوروبا ما زالوا على قيد الحياة من الهولوكوست النازي ". [16] في عام 1968 ، أنشأت مكتبة الكونغرس فئة جديدة ، "الهولوكوست ، يهودية (1939-1945)". [17] انتشر المصطلح في الولايات المتحدة من خلال سلسلة الهولوكوست المصغرة لشبكة إن بي سي (1978) حول عائلة خيالية من اليهود الألمان ، [18] وفي نوفمبر من ذلك العامتأسست لجنة الرئيس بشأن الهولوكوست . [19] كما بدأت جماعات غير اليهودية لتشمل أنفسهم ضحايا المحرقة ، اختار العديد من اليهود إلى استخدام مصطلحي العبرية المحرقة أو Churban . [20] [و] استخدم النازيون عبارة " الحل النهائي للمسألة اليهودية " ( الألمانية : die Endlösung der Judenfrage ). [22]
تعريف
يعرّف مؤرخو الهولوكوست بشكل عام الهولوكوست على أنها إبادة جماعية لليهود الأوروبيين على يد ألمانيا النازية والمتعاونين معها بين عامي 1941 و 1945. [أ] يفضل دونالد نيويك وفرانسيس نيقوسيا ، في دليل كولومبيا للهولوكوست (2000) ، تعريفًا يتضمن اليهود والغجر والمعاقين: "القتل المنظم برعاية الدولة لمجموعات بأكملها تحددها الوراثة". [31] [ز]
المجموعات الأخرى المستهدفة بعد أن أصبح هتلر مستشارا لألمانيا في يناير 1933 [34] تشمل أولئك الذين ينظر إلى النازيين كما أدنى حد ذاتها (بعض الناس السلافية ، وخاصة البولنديين والروس، [35] في روما ، و المعوقين )، وتلك التي استهدفت بسبب معتقداتهم أو سلوكهم (مثل شهود يهوه والشيوعيين والمثليين جنسياً ). [36] بيتر هايزيكتب أن اضطهاد هذه الجماعات كان أقل تماثلًا من اضطهاد اليهود. على سبيل المثال ، تألفت معاملة النازيين للسلاف من "الاستعباد والاستنزاف التدريجي" ، في حين تم تفضيل بعض السلاف ؛ يسرد هايز البلغار والكروات والسلوفاك وبعض الأوكرانيين. [24] في المقابل ، اعتبر هتلر اليهود على أنهم ما يسميه دان ستون " جيجنراس :" سباق مضاد "... ليس حقًا بشريًا على الإطلاق." [9]
السمات المميزة
حالة الإبادة الجماعية
حولت لوجستيات القتل الجماعي ألمانيا إلى ما أسماه مايكل بيرينباوم "دولة الإبادة الجماعية". [37] كتب إيبرهارد جيكيل في عام 1986 أن هذه هي المرة الأولى التي ترمي فيها دولة قوتها وراء فكرة أنه يجب القضاء على شعب بأكمله. [ح] قُتل ما مجموعه 165200 يهودي ألماني . [39] كان من المقرر إبادة أي شخص لديه ثلاثة أو أربعة أجداد يهود ، [40] وتم وضع قواعد معقدة للتعامل مع Mischlinge ("السلالات المختلطة"). [41]حدد البيروقراطيون من كان يهوديًا ، وصادروا ممتلكات وقطارات مجدولة لترحيلهم. قامت الشركات بطرد اليهود واستخدمتهم فيما بعد كعبيد. فصلت الجامعات أعضاء هيئة التدريس والطلاب اليهود. اختبرت شركات الأدوية الألمانية الأدوية على سجناء المعسكرات ؛ قامت شركات أخرى ببناء محارق الجثث . [37] عندما دخل السجناء معسكرات الموت ، قاموا بتسليم جميع ممتلكاتهم الشخصية ، [42] التي تم تصنيفها ووضع علامات عليها قبل إرسالها إلى ألمانيا لإعادة استخدامها أو إعادة تدويرها. [43] من خلال حساب مخفي ، ساعد البنك الوطني الألماني في غسيل الأشياء الثمينة المسروقة من الضحايا. [44]
التجارب الطبية
خضع ما لا يقل عن 7000 نزيل في المعسكر لتجارب طبية ؛ مات معظمهم خلالها أو نتيجة لذلك. [45] والتجارب، التي وقعت في أوشفيتز ، بوخنفالد ، داخاو ، Natzweiler-Struthof ، نيونغامي ، رافنسبروك ، و زاكسينهاوزن ، والمشاركة تعقيم الرجال والنساء، والعلاج من جروح الحرب، وسبل مواجهة الأسلحة الكيميائية، والبحث في لقاحات جديدة والمخدرات ، والبقاء على قيد الحياة من الظروف القاسية. [45]
بعد الحرب ، تم اتهام 23 من كبار الأطباء وغيرهم من العاملين في المجال الطبي في نورمبرج بارتكاب جرائم ضد الإنسانية. وكان من بينهم رئيس الصليب الأحمر الألماني ، وأساتذة معينون ، ومديرو عيادات ، وباحثون في الطب الحيوي. [46] كان الطبيب الأكثر شهرة هو جوزيف مينجيل ، ضابط قوات الأمن الخاصة الذي أصبح طبيبًا لمعسكر أوشفيتز في 30 مايو 1943. [47] مهتمًا بعلم الوراثة ، [47] وحرصًا على تجربة التوائم ، كان يختار الأشخاص على المنحدر من الوافدين الجدد أثناء "الاختيار" (لتحديد من الذي سيتم استخدامه للغاز على الفور ومن سيتم استخدامه كعمالة بالسخرة) ، صاحوا " زويلينج هيراوس! " (توأمان يتقدمان!). [48]سيتم قياس وقتل وتشريح التوائم. قال أحد مساعدي مينجيل في عام 1946 إنه طُلب منه إرسال الأعضاء التي تهم مديري "معهد الأنثروبولوجيا في برلين داهلم". يُعتقد أن هذا يشير إلى المشرف الأكاديمي لـ Mengele ، Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer ، مدير من أكتوبر 1942 لمعهد Kaiser Wilhelm للأنثروبولوجيا والوراثة البشرية وعلم تحسين النسل في برلين-داهلم . [49] [i]
الأصول
معاداة السامية وحركة فلكيش
طوال العصور الوسطى في أوروبا ، تعرض اليهود لمعاداة السامية بناءً على اللاهوت المسيحي ، الذي ألقى باللوم عليهم في قتل يسوع. حتى بعد الإصلاح ، الكاثوليكية و اللوثرية واصلت اضطهاد اليهود، متهما إياهم فرية الدم وتعريضهم لل مذابح وعمليات الطرد. [52] شهد النصف الثاني من القرن 19 ظهور، في الإمبراطورية الألمانية و الإمبراطورية النمساوية المجرية ، من [فلكيسكه] الحركة ، التي وضعتها المفكرين مثل هيوستن ستيوارت تشامبرلين و بول دي لاجارد. اعتنقت الحركة عنصرية علمية زائفة نظرت إلى اليهود على أنهم عرق كان أعضاؤه محاصرين في معركة مميتة مع العرق الآري للسيطرة على العالم. [53] أصبحت هذه الأفكار شائعة في جميع أنحاء ألمانيا. تبنت الطبقات المهنية أيديولوجية لا ترى أن البشر متساوون بين الأعراق ولهم قيمة وراثية متساوية. [54] نشأ الحزب النازي ( Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei أو حزب العمال الألماني الاشتراكي القومي ) كفرع من حركة فلكيش ، وقد تبنى معاداة السامية لتلك الحركة. [55]
ألمانيا بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى ، وجهة نظر هتلر العالمية
بعد الحرب العالمية الأولى (1914-1918) ، رفض العديد من الألمان هزيمة بلادهم. A أسطورة طعنة في داخل الظهير المتقدمة، يلمح أن السياسيين خائن، وعلى رأسها اليهود والشيوعيين، قد دبرت استسلام ألمانيا. تأجيج المشاعر المعادية لليهود كان التمثيل الزائد الواضح لليهود في قيادة الحكومات الثورية الشيوعية في أوروبا ، مثل إرنست تولر ، رئيس حكومة ثورية قصيرة العمر في بافاريا. ساهم هذا التصور في دمار البلشفية اليهودية . [56]
من بين أوائل معاداة السامية في الحزب النازي ، ديتريش إيكارت ، ناشر صحيفة فولكيشر بيوباتشتر ، وجريدة الحزب ، وألفريد روزنبرغ ، الذي كتب مقالات معادية للسامية في عشرينيات القرن الماضي. ستؤثر رؤية روزنبرغ لمؤامرة يهودية سرية تحكم العالم على آراء هتلر عن اليهود بجعلهم القوة الدافعة وراء الشيوعية. [57] كان محور رؤية هتلر للعالم هو فكرة التوسع و Lebensraum (مساحة المعيشة) في أوروبا الشرقية للآريين الألمان ، وهي سياسة لما أسمته دوريس بيرغن "العرق والفضاء". منفتحًا على كراهيته لليهود ، اشترك في الصور النمطية المعادية للسامية. [58]منذ أوائل العشرينات فصاعدًا ، قارن اليهود بالجراثيم وقال إنه يجب التعامل معهم بنفس الطريقة. لقد اعتبر الماركسية عقيدة يهودية ، وقال إنه كان يحارب "الماركسية اليهودية" ، واعتقد أن اليهود قد خلقوا الشيوعية كجزء من مؤامرة لتدمير ألمانيا. [59]
صعود ألمانيا النازية
الدكتاتورية والقمع (يناير 1933)
مع تعيين أدولف هتلر في يناير 1933 مستشارًا لألمانيا واستيلاء النازيين على السلطة ، أعلن القادة الألمان ولادة جديدة لـ Volksgemeinschaft ("المجتمع الشعبي "). [61] قسمت السياسات النازية السكان إلى مجموعتين: Volksgenossen ("الرفاق الوطنيون") الذين ينتمون إلى Volksgemeinschaft ، و Gemeinschaftsfremde("مجتمع الأجانب") الذين لم يفعلوا ذلك. تم تقسيم الأعداء إلى ثلاث مجموعات: الأعداء "العرقيون" أو "الدم" ، مثل اليهود والغجر. المعارضون السياسيون للنازية ، مثل الماركسيين والليبراليين والمسيحيين و "الرجعيين" الذين يُنظر إليهم على أنهم "رفاق وطنيون" ضالون ؛ والمعارضين الأخلاقيين ، مثل الرجال المثليين والخجولين والمجرمين المعتادين. كان من المقرر إرسال المجموعتين الأخيرتين إلى معسكرات الاعتقال من أجل "إعادة التعليم" ، بهدف استيعابهما في نهاية المطاف في Volksgemeinschaft . لا يمكن أن ينتمي الأعداء " العرقيون " أبدًا إلى Volksgemeinschaft ؛ كان من المقرر إزالتهم من المجتمع. [62]
قبل انتخابات الرايخستاغ في مارس 1933 وبعدها ، كثف النازيون حملتهم العنيفة ضد المعارضين ، [63] وأقاموا معسكرات اعتقال للسجن خارج نطاق القضاء . [64] واحد من المعسكر الأول ، في داخاو ، افتتح في 22 مارس 1933. [65] في البداية احتوى المعسكر في الغالب على الشيوعيين والاشتراكيين الديمقراطيين. [66] تم دمج السجون المبكرة الأخرى بحلول منتصف عام 1934 في معسكرات مبنية لهذا الغرض خارج المدن ، والتي تديرها قوات الأمن الخاصة حصريًا. [67] كانت المعسكرات بمثابة رادع من خلال ترويع الألمان الذين لم يدعموا النظام. [68]
طوال الثلاثينيات من القرن الماضي ، تم تقييد الحقوق القانونية والاقتصادية والاجتماعية لليهود بشكل مطرد. [69] في 1 أبريل 1933 ، كانت هناك مقاطعة للأعمال التجارية اليهودية . [70] في 7 أبريل 1933 ، تم إقرار قانون إعادة الخدمة المدنية المهنية ، والذي استثنى اليهود و "غير الآريين" الآخرين من الخدمة المدنية. [71] تم حرمان اليهود من ممارسة القانون ، أو من كونهم محررين أو مالكي صحف ، أو الانضمام إلى نقابة الصحفيين ، أو امتلاك مزارع. [72] في سيليزيافي مارس 1933 ، دخلت مجموعة من الرجال قاعة المحكمة واعتدوا بالضرب على المحامين اليهود. كتب فريدلاندر أنه في دريسدن ، تم سحب المحامين والقضاة اليهود من قاعات المحاكم أثناء المحاكمات. [73] تم تقييد الطلاب اليهود بنظام الحصص من الذهاب إلى المدارس والجامعات. [71] تم استهداف الشركات اليهودية بالإغلاق أو "الآرية" ، البيع القسري للألمان. من بين حوالي 50000 شركة يهودية في ألمانيا في عام 1933 ، كان حوالي 7000 لا يزال مملوكًا لليهود في أبريل 1939. تم استبعاد أعمال الملحنين اليهود ، [74] المؤلفين والفنانين من المطبوعات والعروض والمعارض. [75] تم فصل الأطباء اليهود أو حثهم على الاستقالة. The Deutsches Ärzteblatt(مجلة طبية) ذكرت في 6 أبريل 1933: "يجب أن يعالج الألمان الألمان فقط". [76]
قانون التعقيم ، أكتيون T4
أدت الضغوط الاقتصادية الناجمة عن الكساد الكبير إلى قيام الجمعيات الخيرية البروتستانتية وبعض أعضاء المؤسسة الطبية الألمانية بالدعوة إلى التعقيم الإجباري للمعاقين عقليًا وجسديًا "المستعصون" ، [78] الأشخاص الذين أطلق عليهم النازيون اسم Lebensunwertes Leben ( الحياة لا تستحق الحياة ). [79] في 14 يوليو 1933 ، تم تمرير قانون الوقاية من النسل المصاب بأمراض وراثية ( Gesetz zur Verhütung erbkranken Nachwuchses ) ، قانون التعقيم. [80] [81] ذكرت صحيفة نيويورك تايمز في 21 ديسمبر من ذلك العام: "سيتم تعقيم 400000 ألماني". [82]كان هناك 84.525 طلبًا من الأطباء في السنة الأولى. وتوصلت المحاكم إلى قرار في 64499 من تلك القضايا ؛ 56244 كانوا يؤيدون التعقيم. [83] تتراوح تقديرات عدد عمليات التعقيم غير الطوعي خلال الرايخ الثالث بأكمله من 300000 إلى 400000. [84]
في أكتوبر 1939 ، وقع هتلر "مرسوم القتل الرحيم" الذي يعود تاريخه إلى 1 سبتمبر 1939 والذي سمح للرايخليتر فيليب بوهلر ، رئيس مستشارية هتلر ، وكارل براندت ، الطبيب الشخصي لهتلر ، بتنفيذ برنامج القتل الرحيم غير الطوعي. بعد الحرب ، أصبح هذا البرنامج معروفًا باسم Aktion T4 ، [85] سمي على اسم Tiergartenstraße 4 ، وهو عنوان فيلا في حي Tiergarten في برلين ، حيث يقع المقر الرئيسي لمختلف المنظمات المشاركة. [86] تم توجيه T4 بشكل أساسي إلى البالغين ، ولكن تم تنفيذ القتل الرحيم للأطفال أيضًا. [87]بين عامي 1939 و 1941 ، قُتل 80.000 إلى 100.000 من البالغين المصابين بأمراض عقلية في المؤسسات ، وكذلك 5000 طفل و 1000 يهودي ، أيضًا في المؤسسات. كانت هناك أيضًا مراكز قتل مخصصة ، حيث قُدرت الوفيات بنحو 20 ألفًا ، وفقًا لجورج رينو ، نائب مدير شلوس هارثيم ، أحد مراكز القتل الرحيم ، أو 400 ألف ، وفقًا لفرانك زيريس ، قائد معسكر اعتقال ماوتهاوزن. [88] بشكل عام ، كان عدد القتلى من المعاقين ذهنيًا وجسديًا حوالي 150.000. [89]
على الرغم من عدم طلب المشاركة ، شارك الأطباء النفسيون والعديد من مؤسسات الطب النفسي في تخطيط وتنفيذ Aktion T4 . [90] في أغسطس 1941 ، بعد احتجاجات من الكنائس الكاثوليكية والبروتستانتية في ألمانيا ، ألغى هتلر برنامج T4 ، [91] على الرغم من استمرار قتل الأشخاص المعاقين حتى نهاية الحرب. [89] المجتمع الطبي يستقبل بانتظام جثث للبحث. على سبيل المثال ، تلقت جامعة توبنغن 1077 جثة من عمليات الإعدام بين عامي 1933 و 1945. عالم الأعصاب الألماني جوليوس هالرفوردنتلقى 697 عقلًا من مستشفى واحد بين عامي 1940 و 1944: "لقد قبلت هذه العقول بالطبع. من أين أتوا وكيف أتوا إلي لم يكن في الحقيقة من أعمالي." [92]
قوانين نورمبرغ ، الهجرة اليهودية
في 15 سبتمبر 1935 ، أصدر الرايخستاغ قانون مواطنة الرايخ وقانون حماية الدم الألماني والشرف الألماني ، المعروف باسم قوانين نورمبرغ . قال الأول إن المواطنين فقط هم من "دماء ألمانية أو عشيرة". تم تصنيف أي شخص لديه ثلاثة أجداد يهود أو أكثر على أنه يهودي. [94] قال القانون الثاني: "يُمنع الزواج بين اليهود ورعايا الدولة الألمانية أو ذوي الدماء ذات الصلة". كما تم تجريم العلاقات الجنسية بينهما ؛ لم يُسمح لليهود بتشغيل نساء ألمانيات تحت سن 45 في منازلهم. [95] [94]كانت القوانين تشير إلى اليهود ولكنها تطبق بالتساوي على الغجر والألمان السود. على الرغم من أن الدول الأوروبية الأخرى - بلغاريا ، ودولة كرواتيا المستقلة ، والمجر ، وإيطاليا ، ورومانيا ، وسلوفاكيا ، وفرنسا فيشي - أقرت تشريعات مماثلة ، [94] يلاحظ غيرلاخ أن "ألمانيا النازية تبنت قوانين وأنظمة معادية لليهود على مستوى البلاد (حوالي 1500) من أي دولة أخرى ". [96]
بحلول نهاية عام 1934 ، غادر 50000 يهودي ألماني ألمانيا ، [97] وبحلول نهاية عام 1938 ، كان ما يقرب من نصف السكان اليهود الألمان قد غادروا ، [98] من بينهم قائد الأوركسترا برونو والتر ، الذي فر بعد أن قيل له أن القاعة من أوركسترا برلين الفيلهارمونية سيحترق إذا أقام حفلة موسيقية هناك. [99] ألبرت أينشتاين ، الذي كان في الولايات المتحدة عندما وصل هتلر إلى السلطة ، لم يعد أبدًا إلى ألمانيا. تم إلغاء جنسيته وتم طرده من جمعية القيصر فيلهلم و الأكاديمية البروسية للعلوم . [100] علماء يهود آخرون ، بما في ذلك جوستاف هيرتزوخسروا وظائفهم التدريسية وغادروا البلاد. [101]
أنشلوس (12 مارس 1938)
في 12 مارس 1938 ، ضمت ألمانيا النمسا. 90٪ من اليهود النمساويين البالغ عددهم 176.000 يعيشون في فيينا. [102] حطمت قوات الأمن الخاصة وجيش الإنقاذ المحال التجارية وسرقت السيارات التابعة لليهود. وقفت الشرطة النمساوية بجانبها ، والبعض يرتدي بالفعل شارات الصليب المعقوفة. [103] أُجبر اليهود على القيام بأعمال مهينة مثل تنظيف الشوارع أو تنظيف المراحيض أثناء ارتداء التيفيلين . [104] تم "تأريخ" حوالي 7000 شركة يهودية ، وفُرضت جميع القيود القانونية على اليهود في ألمانيا في النمسا. [105] و مؤتمر إيفيانعقدت في فرنسا في يوليو 1938 من قبل 32 دولة لمساعدة اللاجئين اليهود الألمان والنمساويين ، ولكن تم إنجاز القليل ولم تقم معظم الدول بزيادة عدد اللاجئين الذين تقبلهم. [106] في أغسطس من ذلك العام ، تم تعيين أدولف أيشمان مديرًا (تحت قيادة فرانز والتر ستاليكر ) للوكالة المركزية للهجرة اليهودية في فيينا ( Zentralstelle für jüdische Auswanderung في فيينا ). [107] وصل سيغموند فرويد وعائلته إلى لندن من فيينا في يونيو 1938 ، بفضل ما أسماه ديفيد سيزاراني "الجهود الجبارة" لإخراجهم. [108]
ليلة الكريستال (9-10 نوفمبر 1938)
في 7 نوفمبر 1938 ، أطلق هيرشل جرينسسبان ، وهو يهودي بولندي ، النار على الدبلوماسي الألماني إرنست فوم راث في السفارة الألمانية في باريس ، انتقاما لطرد والديه وإخوته من ألمانيا. [109] [ي] عندما توفي وم راث في 9 نوفمبر ، تم الهجوم على الكنيس والمتاجر اليهودية في ديساو . وفقًا لمذكرات جوزيف جوبلز ، قرر هتلر سحب الشرطة: "لمرة واحدة يجب أن يشعر اليهود بغضب الشعب" ، حسبما أفاد به غوبلز. [111] كتب ديفيد سيزاراني أن النتيجة كانت "القتل والاغتصاب والنهب وتدمير الممتلكات والإرهاب على نطاق غير مسبوق". [112]
عُرفت المذبحة التي عُرِفت باسم ليلة الكريستال (ليلة الزجاج المكسور) ، والتي وقعت في 9-10 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1938 ، بما يزيد عن 7500 متجر يهودي (من بين 9000) نهبًا ومهاجمة ، كما تم تدمير أو تدمير أكثر من 1000 معبد يهودي . أجبر الحشد مجموعات من اليهود على مشاهدة معابدهم تحترق. في Bensheim أجبروا على الرقص حولها وفي Laupheim على الركوع أمامها. [113] مات ما لا يقل عن 90 يهوديًا. قدر الضرر بنحو 39 مليون مارك ألماني . [114] على عكس تصريحات جوبل في مذكراته ، لم يتم سحب الشرطة ؛ الشرطة النظامية ، الجستابو ، قوات الأمن الخاصة و SA شاركوا جميعًا ، على الرغم من ذلككان هاينريش هيملر غاضبًا من انضمام قوات الأمن الخاصة. [115] وقعت الهجمات في النمسا أيضًا. [116] صدم مدى العنف بقية العالم. ذكرت صحيفة تايمز أوف لندن في 11 نوفمبر 1938:
لا يوجد دعاية أجنبي عازم على تشويه صورة ألمانيا قبل أن يتمكن العالم من التغلب على قصة الحرق والضرب ، والاعتداءات السوداء على الأشخاص الأبرياء العزل ، والتي عانت هذا البلد بالأمس. إما أن السلطات الألمانية كانت طرفًا في هذا التفشي أو أن سلطاتها على النظام العام وأقلية مثيري الشغب ليست ما يُدعى بفخر أنها كذلك. [117]
بين 9 و 16 نوفمبر ، تم إرسال 30000 يهودي إلى محتشدات الاعتقال بوخنفالد ، داخاو و زاكسينهاوزن . [118] أطلق سراح العديد في غضون أسابيع. بحلول أوائل عام 1939 ، بقي 2000 في المخيمات. [119] تم تحميل يهود ألمانيا مسؤولية جماعية عن تعويض الضرر. كما اضطروا إلى دفع "ضريبة تكفير" تزيد عن مليار مارك ألماني. وصادرت الحكومة مدفوعات التأمين عن الأضرار التي لحقت بممتلكاتهم. صدر مرسوم في 12 نوفمبر 1938 بمنع اليهود من معظم المهن المتبقية. [120] كانت ليلة الكريستال علامة على نهاية أي نوع من النشاط والثقافة اليهودية العامة ، وصعد اليهود من جهودهم لمغادرة البلاد. [121]
إعادة التوطين
قبل الحرب العالمية الثانية ، نظرت ألمانيا في الترحيل الجماعي لليهود الألمان ، ثم الأوروبيين لاحقًا. [122] من بين المناطق التي تم النظر في إمكانية إعادة التوطين فيها فلسطين البريطانية ، وبعد بدء الحرب ، مدغشقر الفرنسية ، [123] سيبيريا ، ومحميتان في بولندا . [124] [ك] كانت فلسطين هي المكان الوحيد الذي أسفرت فيه أي خطة إعادة توطين ألمانية عن نتائج ، من خلال اتفاقية هافارا بين الاتحاد الصهيوني لألمانيا والحكومة الألمانية. بين نوفمبر 1933 وديسمبر 1939 ، أسفرت الاتفاقية عن هجرة حوالي 53000 يهودي ألماني ، سُمح لهم بالترحيل 100 مليون رينغيت ماليزي من أصولهم إلى فلسطين عن طريق شراء البضائع الألمانية ، في انتهاك للمقاطعة التي يقودها اليهود ضد النازية عام 1933 . [126]
اندلاع الحرب العالمية الثانية
غزو بولندا (1 سبتمبر 1939)
غيتو
مات بين 2.7 و 3 ملايين يهودي بولندي خلال الهولوكوست من بين 3.3 - 3.5 مليون نسمة. [127] كان عدد اليهود الذين عاشوا في بولندا في عام 1939 أكبر من أي مكان آخر خارج الولايات المتحدة (حيث كان يعيش أكثر من 4.6 مليون [128] ) ؛ 3 ملايين آخرين يعيشون في الاتحاد السوفيتي. عندما الألمانية فيرماخت (القوات المسلحة) بغزو بولندا في 1 سبتمبر 1939، مما اثار الإعلانات الحرب من المملكة المتحدة و فرنسا ، واكتسبت ألمانيا السيطرة على حوالي مليوني يهودي في الأراضي التي تحتلها. احتل الاتحاد السوفيتي باقي بولندا ، وغزا بولندا من الشرق في 17 سبتمبر 1939. [129]
رافق Wehrmacht في بولندا سبعة من SS Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolitizei ("فرق العمل الخاصة لشرطة الأمن") و Einsatzkommando ، البالغ عددهم 3000 رجل ، والذي كان دوره هو التعامل مع "جميع العناصر المعادية لألمانيا في بلد معاد وراء القوات في القتال ". [130] تضمنت الخطط الألمانية لبولندا طرد البولنديين غير اليهود من مناطق واسعة ، وتوطين الألمان في الأراضي الفارغة ، [131] وإرسال القيادة البولندية إلى المعسكرات ، وحرمان الطبقات الدنيا من التعليم ، وحبس اليهود. [132] أرسل الألمان يهودًا من جميع الأراضي التي ضموها (النمسا والأراضي التشيكية، وغرب بولندا) إلى القسم الأوسط من بولندا ، والذي كان يطلق عليه الحكومة العامة . [١٣٣] في النهاية تم طرد اليهود إلى مناطق بولندا التي لم يتم ضمها من قبل ألمانيا. ومع ذلك ، في هذه الأثناء ، سيتم تركيزهم في الأحياء اليهودية بالمدن الكبرى لتحقيق ، وفقًا لأمر من راينهارد هايدريش بتاريخ 21 سبتمبر 1939 ، "إمكانية أفضل للسيطرة والترحيل لاحقًا". [134] [ل] اعتبارًا من 1 ديسمبر ، طُلب من اليهود ارتداء شارات نجمة داود . [133]
نص الألمان على أن يقود كل حي يهودي يهودي من 24 رجلاً يهوديًا ، والذين سيكونون مسؤولين عن تنفيذ الأوامر الألمانية. [136] تضمنت هذه الأوامر ، من عام 1942 ، تسهيل عمليات الترحيل إلى معسكرات الإبادة. [137] تأسس غيتو وارسو في نوفمبر 1940 ، وبحلول أوائل عام 1941 كان يضم 445000 شخص. [138] ثاني أكبر غيتو ، لودز ، احتجز 160.000 اعتبارًا من مايو 1940. [139] كان على السكان دفع ثمن الطعام والإمدادات الأخرى عن طريق بيع أي سلع يمكنهم إنتاجها. [138] في الأحياء اليهودية ومعسكرات السخرة ، مات ما لا يقل عن نصف مليون من الجوع والمرض وسوء الأحوال المعيشية.[140] على الرغم من احتواء غيتو وارسو على 30 في المائة من سكان المدينة ، إلا أنه احتل 2.4 في المائة فقط من مساحتها ، [141] بمتوسط تسعة أشخاص لكل غرفة. [142] توفي هناك أكثر من 43000 مقيم في عام 1941. [143]
المذابح في شرق بولندا المحتلة
كتب بيتر هايز أن الألمان خلقوا " عالم هوبز " في بولندا حيث كانت أجزاء مختلفة من السكان تتنافس ضد بعضها البعض. [145] التصور بين البولنديين العرقيين بأن اليهود قد دعموا الغزو السوفيتي [146] ساهم في التوترات القائمة ، والتي استغلت ألمانيا ، وإعادة توزيع المنازل والسلع اليهودية ، وتحويل المعابد والمدارس والمستشفيات في المناطق اليهودية إلى منشآت لغير اليهود . [147] أمر الألمان بعقوبة الإعدام لأي شخص يساعد اليهود. أشار المخبرون إلى من كان يهوديًا ومن البولنديين الذين كانوا يساعدون في إخفاءهم [148] خلال فترة جودينجاجد (مطاردة اليهود). [149]على الرغم من المخاطر ، ساعد آلاف البولنديين اليهود. [150] تم إعدام ما يقرب من 1000 لقيامهم بذلك ، [145] وقد قام ياد فاشيم بتسمية أكثر من 7000 بولندي بأنهم الصالحين بين الأمم . [151]
وقعت المذابح طوال فترة الاحتلال. أثناء مذابح لفيف في Lwów ، احتلت شرق بولندا (لاحقًا لفيف ، أوكرانيا ) [م] في يونيو ويوليو 1941 - كان عدد السكان 157،490 بولندي ؛ 99595 يهوديًا ؛ والأوكرانية 49747 [152] قتل -بعض 6000 اليهود في الشوارع من قبل القوميين الأوكرانيين (على وجه التحديد، و OUN ) [153] و ميليشيا الأوكرانية الشعبية ، بمساعدة من السكان المحليين. [154] تم تجريد النساء اليهوديات من ملابسهن وضربهن واغتصابهن. [155] أيضًا ، بعد وصول وحدات القتل المتنقلة جفي 2 يوليو ، قُتل 3000 يهودي آخر في إطلاق نار جماعي نفذته قوات الأمن الخاصة الألمانية . [156] [157] أثناء مذبحة جيدوابني ، في 10 يوليو 1941 ، قتلت مجموعة من 40 رجلًا بولنديًا بدافع من عملاء الجستابو الألمان الذين وصلوا إلى المدينة في اليوم السابق ، [158] عدة مئات من اليهود. حوالي 300 تم حرقهم أحياء في حظيرة. [159] وفقًا لما ذكره هايز ، كان هذا "واحدًا من ستة وستين هجومًا متزامنًا تقريبًا في مقاطعة سواكي وحدها وحوالي مائتي حادث مماثل في المقاطعات الشرقية التي ضمها الاتحاد السوفيتي". [146]
معسكرات الإبادة الألمانية النازية في بولندا
في نهاية عام 1941، بدأ الألمان بناء معسكرات الإبادة في بولندا: أوشفيتز II ، [160] بلزيك ، [161] خيلمنو ، [162] مايدانيك ، [163] سوبيبور ، [164] و تريبلينكا . [165] تم تركيب غرف الغاز بحلول ربيع أو صيف عام 1942. [166] قامت قوات الأمن الخاصة بتصفية معظم الأحياء اليهودية في منطقة الحكومة العامة في عام 1942-1943 ( تمت تصفية غيتو لودز في منتصف عام 1944) ، [167] وشحنوا سكانهم إلى هذه المعسكرات ، مع يهود من جميع أنحاء أوروبا. [168][ن] وفرت المعسكرات فرص عمل للسكان المحليين وبضائع من السوق السوداء تمت مصادرتها من عائلات يهودية ، معتقدة أنه تم إعادة توطينهم ، ووصلوا مع متعلقاتهم. وفقًا لهايز ، أقام تجار العملات والمجوهرات متجرًا خارج معسكر الإبادة في تريبلينكا (بالقرب من وارسو) في 1942-1943 ، وكذلك البغايا. [147] بحلول نهاية عام 1942 ، مات معظم اليهود في منطقة الحكومة العامة. [170] بلغ عدد القتلى اليهود في معسكرات الإبادة أكثر من ثلاثة ملايين إجمالاً. تم قتل معظم اليهود بالغاز عند وصولهم. [171]
غزو النرويج والدنمارك
غزت ألمانيا النرويج والدنمارك في 9 أبريل 1940 ، خلال عملية Weserübung . تم اجتياح الدنمارك بسرعة بحيث لم يكن هناك وقت لتشكيل مقاومة. وبالتالي ، بقيت الحكومة الدنماركية في السلطة ووجد الألمان أنه من الأسهل العمل من خلالها. وبسبب هذا ، تم اتخاذ إجراءات قليلة ضد اليهود الدنماركيين قبل عام 1942. [172] بحلول يونيو 1940 ، كانت النرويج محتلة بالكامل. [173] في أواخر عام 1940 ، تم منع 1800 يهودي في البلاد من بعض المهن ، وفي عام 1941 كان على جميع اليهود تسجيل ممتلكاتهم لدى الحكومة. [174]في 26 نوفمبر 1942 ، أخذ ضباط الشرطة 532 يهوديًا في الساعة الرابعة صباحًا إلى ميناء أوسلو ، حيث استقلوا سفينة ألمانية. تم إرسالهم من ألمانيا بقطار الشحن إلى أوشفيتز. وفقًا لدان ستون ، نجا تسعة فقط من الحرب. [175]
غزو فرنسا والبلدان المنخفضة
في مايو 1940، ألمانيا بغزو هولندا ، لوكسمبورغ ، بلجيكا ، و فرنسا . بعد استسلام بلجيكا ، حكم البلاد الحاكم العسكري الألماني ، ألكسندر فون فالكنهاوزن ، الذي اتخذ إجراءات معادية لليهود ضد 90 ألف يهودي ، وكثير منهم لاجئون من ألمانيا أو أوروبا الشرقية. [175] في هولندا ، نصب الألمان آرثر سيس-إنكوارت في منصب Reichskommissar ، الذي بدأ في اضطهاد 140.000 يهودي في البلاد. أجبر اليهود على ترك وظائفهم واضطروا إلى التسجيل لدى الحكومة. في فبراير 1941 ، نظم مواطنون هولنديون من غير اليهود إضرابًا احتجاجًا تم سحقه بسرعة. [177]من يوليو 1942 ، تم ترحيل أكثر من 107000 يهودي هولندي ؛ نجا 5000 فقط من الحرب. تم إرسال معظمهم إلى أوشفيتز ؛ غادرت أول عملية نقل لـ 1135 يهوديًا هولندا متوجهة إلى أوشفيتز في 15 يوليو 1942. بين 2 مارس و 20 يوليو 1943 ، تم إرسال 34313 يهوديًا في 19 عملية نقل إلى محتشد الإبادة في سوبيبور ، حيث يُعتقد أن جميعهم تعرضوا للغاز بالغاز باستثناء 18 شخصًا. [178]
كان لدى فرنسا ما يقرب من 330 ألف يهودي ، مقسمين بين الشمال الذي تحتله ألمانيا والمناطق الجنوبية غير المحتلة المتعاونة في فيشي فرنسا (التي سميت على اسم بلدة فيشي ) ، أكثر من نصف هؤلاء السكان اليهود ليسوا مواطنين فرنسيين ، لكنهم لاجئون فروا من الاضطهاد النازي في مناطق أخرى. الدول. كانت المناطق المحتلة تحت سيطرة الحاكم العسكري ، وهناك ، لم يتم تفعيل الإجراءات المعادية لليهود بالسرعة التي كانت عليها في المناطق التي تسيطر عليها فيشي. [179] في يوليو 1940 ، تم طرد اليهود في أجزاء من الألزاس واللورين التي تم ضمها إلى ألمانيا إلى فيشي بفرنسا. [180] نفذت حكومة فيشي الفرنسية إجراءات معادية لليهودفي العاصمة الفرنسية، في الجزائر الفرنسية واثنين من المحميات الفرنسية من تونس و المغرب . [181] كان في تونس 85000 يهودي عندما وصل الألمان والإيطاليون في نوفمبر 1942. تعرض ما يقدر بـ 5000 يهودي للعمل القسري. [182] و الولايات المتحدة متحف الهولوكوست التذكاري يقدر أن ما بين 72900 و 74000 اليهود الذين قتلوا خلال المحرقة في فرنسا. [183]
خطة مدغشقر
أدى سقوط فرنسا إلى ظهور خطة مدغشقر في صيف عام 1940 ، عندما أصبحت مدغشقر الفرنسية في جنوب شرق إفريقيا محور المناقشات حول ترحيل جميع يهود أوروبا إلى هناك ؛ كان يعتقد أن الظروف المعيشية القاسية في المنطقة ستسرع من الوفيات. [184] ناقش العديد من القادة البولنديين والفرنسيين والبريطانيين الفكرة في ثلاثينيات القرن الماضي ، كما فعل القادة الألمان منذ عام 1938. [185] أُمر مكتب أدولف أيشمان بالتحقيق في هذا الخيار ، ولكن لا يوجد دليل على التخطيط إلا بعد الهزيمة فرنسا في يونيو 1940. [186] عجز ألمانيا عن هزيمة بريطانيا ، وهو الأمر الذي كان واضحًا للألمان بحلول سبتمبر 1940 ، منع حركة اليهود عبر البحار ، [187]وتخلت وزارة الخارجية عن الخطة في فبراير 1942. [188]
غزو يوغوسلافيا واليونان
يوغوسلافيا و اليونان وغزا في أبريل 1941 واستسلم قبل نهاية الشهر الجاري. قسمت ألمانيا وإيطاليا وبلغاريا اليونان إلى مناطق احتلال لكنها لم تقضي عليها كدولة. كان عدد السكان اليهود اليونانيين قبل الحرب بين 72000 و 77000. بحلول نهاية الحرب ، بقي حوالي 10000 ، وهو ما يمثل أدنى معدل للبقاء في البلقان ومن بين أدنى المعدلات في أوروبا. [189]
يوغوسلافيا ، موطن 80.000 يهودي ، تم تقطيع أوصالها ؛ تم ضم مناطق في الشمال من قبل ألمانيا والمجر ، وتم جعل المناطق الواقعة على طول الساحل جزءًا من إيطاليا وكوسوفو ومقدونيا الغربية لألبانيا ، بينما استقبلت بلغاريا مقدونيا الشرقية. تم تقسيم بقية البلاد إلى دولة كرواتيا المستقلة (NDH) ، وهي دولة دمية إيطالية-ألمانية تتألف أراضيها من كرواتيا والبوسنة والهرسك ، مع وجود حزب Ustaše الفاشي الكرواتي في السلطة ؛ و الألمانية المحتلة صربيا ، يحكم من قبل المسؤولين العسكريين والشرطة الألمانية [190] الذي عين الصربية المتعاونة الحكومة العميلة ، حكومة الإنقاذ الوطنيبرئاسة ميلان نيديتش . [191] [192] [193] في أغسطس 1942 ، تم إعلان صربيا خالية من اليهود ، [194] بعد الفيرماخت والشرطة الألمانية ، بمساعدة متعاونين مع حكومة نيديتش وآخرين مثل زبور ، المؤيد للنازية والصربية القومية حزب فاشي قتل ما يقرب من 17000 يهودي بالكامل. [195] [196] [197]
في دولة كرواتيا المستقلة (NDH) ، طالب النظام النازي حكامه ، Ustaše ، بتبني سياسات عنصرية معادية للسامية ، واضطهاد اليهود وإنشاء العديد من معسكرات الاعتقال . قبل زعيم NDH أنتي بافليتش و Ustaše المطالب النازية. وبحلول نهاية ابريل 1941 Ustaše يطلب من جميع اليهود إلى ارتداء شارة، وعادة أصفر نجمة داود [198] وبدأت مصادرة ممتلكات اليهود في أكتوبر 1941. [199] وخلال نفس الوقت من اضطهاد الصرب والغجر، وUstaše شارك في الهولوكوست وقتل غالبية يهود البلاد ؛ [200] ليقدر متحف ذكرى الهولوكوست بالولايات المتحدة أن 30148 يهوديًا قتلوا. [201] وفقًا لجوزو توماسيفيتش ، كانت الجالية اليهودية في زغرب هي الوحيدة التي نجت من 115 مجتمعًا دينيًا يهوديًا في يوغوسلافيا في 1939-1940. [202]
انفصلت الدولة عن السياسة النازية المعادية للسامية من خلال الوعد بالجنسية الآرية الفخرية ، وبالتالي التحرر من الاضطهاد ، لليهود الذين كانوا على استعداد للمساهمة في "القضية الكرواتية". يقول ماركوس تانر إن "قوات الأمن الخاصة اشتكت من أن 5000 يهودي على الأقل ما زالوا على قيد الحياة في NDH وأن آلافًا آخرين قد هاجروا من خلال شراء وضع" الآري الفخري ". [203] لكن نيفينكو بارتولين يفترض أنه من بين إجمالي السكان اليهود في NDH ، حصل 100 يهودي فقط على الوضع القانوني للمواطنين الآريين ، 500 بما في ذلك عائلاتهم. في كلتا الحالتين ، كانت هناك نسبة صغيرة نسبيًا من السكان اليهود البالغ عددهم 37000 نسمة. [204]
In the Bulgarian annexed zones of Macedonia and Thrace, upon demand of the German authorities, the Bulgarians handed over the entire Jewish population, about 12,000 Jews to the military authorities, all were deported.[205]
Invasion of the Soviet Union (22 June 1941)
Reasons
Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, a day Timothy Snyder called "one of the most significant days in the history of Europe ... the beginning of a calamity that defies description".[206] German propaganda portrayed the conflict as an ideological war between German National Socialism and Jewish Bolshevism, and as a racial war between the Germans and the Jewish, Romani, and Slavic Untermenschen ("sub-humans").[207] The war was driven by the need for resources, including, according to David Cesarani, agricultural land to feed Germany, natural resources for German industry, and control over Europe's largest oil fields.[208]
Between early fall 1941 and late spring 1942, Jürgen Matthäus writes, 2 million of the 3.5 million Soviet POWs captured by the Wehrmacht had been executed or had died of neglect and abuse. By 1944 the Soviet death toll was at least 20 million.[209]
Mass shootings
As German troops advanced, the mass shooting of "anti-German elements" was assigned, as in Poland, to the Einsatzgruppen, this time under the command of Reinhard Heydrich.[210] The point of the attacks was to destroy the local Communist Party leadership and therefore the state, including "Jews in the Party and State employment", and any "radical elements".[o] Cesarani writes that the killing of Jews was at this point a "subset" of these activities.[212]
Typically, victims would undress and give up their valuables before lining up beside a ditch to be shot, or they would be forced to climb into the ditch, lie on a lower layer of corpses, and wait to be killed.[213] The latter was known as Sardinenpackung ("packing sardines"), a method reportedly started by SS officer Friedrich Jeckeln.[214]
According to Wolfram Wette, the German army took part in these shootings as bystanders, photographers, and active shooters.[215] In Lithuania, Latvia and western Ukraine, locals were deeply involved; Latvian and Lithuanian units participated in the murder of Jews in Belarus, and in the south, Ukrainians killed about 24,000 Jews. Some Ukrainians went to Poland to serve as guards in the camps.[216]
Einsatzgruppe A arrived in the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) with Army Group North; Einsatzgruppe B in Belarus with Army Group Center; Einsatzgruppe C in the Ukraine with Army Group South; and Einsatzgruppe D went further south into Ukraine with the 11th Army.[217] Each Einsatzgruppe numbered around 600–1,000 men, with a few women in administrative roles.[218] Traveling with nine German Order Police battalions and three units of the Waffen-SS,[219] the Einsatzgruppen and their local collaborators had murdered almost 500,000 people by the winter of 1941–1942. By the end of the war, they had killed around two million, including about 1.3 million Jews and up to a quarter of a million Roma.[220]
Notable massacres include the July 1941 Ponary massacre near Vilnius (Soviet Lithuania), in which Einsatgruppe B and Lithuanian collaborators shot 72,000 Jews and 8,000 non-Jewish Lithuanians and Poles.[221] In the Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre (Soviet Ukraine), nearly 24,000 Jews were killed between 27 and 30 August 1941.[209] The largest massacre was at a ravine called Babi Yar outside Kiev (also Soviet Ukraine), where 33,771 Jews were killed on 29–30 September 1941.[222][223] The Germans used the ravine for mass killings throughout the war; up to 100,000 may have been killed there.[224]
Toward the Holocaust
At first the Einsatzgruppen targeted the male Jewish intelligentsia, defined as male Jews aged 15–60 who had worked for the state and in certain professions. The commandos described them as "Bolshevist functionaries" and similar. From August 1941 they began to murder women and children too.[226] Christopher Browning reports that on 1 August 1941, the SS Cavalry Brigade passed an order to its units: "Explicit order by RF-SS [Heinrich Himmler, Reichsführer-SS]. All Jews must be shot. Drive the female Jews into the swamps."[227]
Two years later, in a speech on 6 October 1943 to party leaders, Heinrich Himmler said he had ordered that women and children be shot, but according to Peter Longerich and Christian Gerlach, the murder of women and children began at different times in different areas, suggesting local influence.[228]
Historians agree that there was a "gradual radicalization" between the spring and autumn of 1941 of what Longerich calls Germany's Judenpolitik, but they disagree about whether a decision—Führerentscheidung (Führer's decision)—to murder the European Jews had been made at this point.[229][p] According to Browning, writing in 2004, most historians say there was no order, before the invasion of the Soviet Union, to kill all the Soviet Jews.[231] Longerich wrote in 2010 that the gradual increase in brutality and numbers killed between July and September 1941 suggests there was "no particular order". Instead, it was a question of "a process of increasingly radical interpretations of orders".[232]
Concentration and labor camps
Germany first used concentration camps as places of terror and unlawful incarceration of political opponents.[234] Large numbers of Jews were not sent there until after Kristallnacht in November 1938.[235] After war broke out in 1939, new camps were established, many outside Germany in occupied Europe.[236] Most wartime prisoners of the camps were not Germans but belonged to countries under German occupation.[237]
After 1942, the economic function of the camps, previously secondary to their penal and terror functions, came to the fore. Forced labor of camp prisoners became commonplace.[235] The guards became much more brutal, and the death rate increased as the guards not only beat and starved prisoners but killed them more frequently.[237] Vernichtung durch Arbeit ("extermination through labor") was a policy; camp inmates would literally be worked to death, or to physical exhaustion, at which point they would be gassed or shot.[238] The Germans estimated the average prisoner's lifespan in a concentration camp at three months, as a result of lack of food and clothing, constant epidemics, and frequent punishments for the most minor transgressions.[239] The shifts were long and often involved exposure to dangerous materials.[240]
Transportation to and between camps was often carried out in closed freight cars with little air or water, long delays and prisoners packed tightly.[241] In mid-1942 work camps began requiring newly arrived prisoners to be placed in quarantine for four weeks.[242] Prisoners wore colored triangles on their uniforms, the color denoting the reason for their incarceration. Red signified a political prisoner, Jehovah's Witnesses had purple triangles, "asocials" and criminals wore black and green, and gay men wore pink.[243] Jews wore two yellow triangles, one over another to form a six-pointed star.[244] Prisoners in Auschwitz were tattooed on arrival with an identification number.[245]
Germany's allies
Romania
According to Dan Stone, the murder of Jews in Romania was "essentially an independent undertaking".[246] Romania implemented anti-Jewish measures in May and June 1940 as part of its efforts towards an alliance with Germany. By March 1941 all Jews had lost their jobs and had their property confiscated.[247] In June 1941 Romania joined Germany in its invasion of the Soviet Union.[248]
Thousands of Jews were killed in January and June 1941 in the Bucharest pogrom and Iași pogrom.[249] According to a 2004 report by Tuvia Friling and others, up to 14,850 Jews died during the Iași pogrom.[250] The Romanian military killed up to 25,000 Jews during the Odessa massacre between 18 October 1941 and March 1942, assisted by gendarmes and the police.[251] In July 1941, Mihai Antonescu, Romania's deputy prime minister, said it was time for "total ethnic purification, for a revision of national life, and for purging our race of all those elements which are foreign to its soul, which have grown like mistletoes and darken our future."[252] Romania set up concentration camps in Transnistria, reportedly extremely brutal, where 154,000–170,000 Jews were deported from 1941 to 1943.[253]
Bulgaria, Slovakia, and Hungary
Bulgaria introduced anti-Jewish measures between 1940 and 1943 (requirement to wear a yellow star, restrictions on owning telephones or radios, and so on).[254] It annexed Thrace and Macedonia, and in February 1943 agreed to a demand from Germany that it deport 20,000 Jews to the Treblinka extermination camp. All 11,000 Jews from the annexed territories were sent to their deaths, and plans were made to deport 6,000–8,000 Bulgarian Jews from Sofia to meet the quota.[255] When this became public, the Orthodox Church and many Bulgarians protested, and King Boris III canceled the plans.[256] Instead, Jews native to Bulgaria were sent to the provinces.[255]
Stone writes that Slovakia, led by Roman Catholic priest Jozef Tiso (president of the Slovak State, 1939–1945), was "one of the most loyal of the collaborationist regimes". It deported 7,500 Jews in 1938 on its own initiative; introduced anti-Jewish measures in 1940; and by the autumn of 1942 had deported around 60,000 Jews to Poland. Another 2,396 were deported and 2,257 killed that autumn during an uprising, and 13,500 were deported between October 1944 and March 1945.[257] According to Stone, "the Holocaust in Slovakia was far more than a German project, even if it was carried out in the context of a 'puppet' state."[258]
Although Hungary expelled Jews who were not citizens from its newly annexed lands in 1941, it did not deport most of its Jews[259] until the German invasion of Hungary in March 1944. Between 15 May and early July 1944, 437,000 Jews were deported, mostly to Auschwitz, where most of them were gassed; there were four transports a day, each carrying 3,000 people.[260] In Budapest in October and November 1944, the Hungarian Arrow Cross forced 50,000 Jews to march to the Austrian border as part of a deal with Germany to supply forced labor. So many died that the marches were stopped.[261]
Italy, Finland, and Japan
Italy introduced antisemitic measures, but there was less antisemitism there than in Germany, and Italian-occupied countries were generally safer for Jews than those occupied by Germany.[262] Most Italian Jews, over 40,000, survived the Holocaust.[263] In September 1943, Germany occupied the northern and central areas of Italy and established a fascist puppet state, the Republica Sociale Italiana or Salò Republic.[264] Officers from RSHA IV B4, a Gestapo unit, began deporting Jews to Auschwitz-Birkenau.[265] The first group of 1,034 Jews arrived from Rome on 23 October 1943; 839 were gassed.[266] Around 8,500 Jews were deported in all.[263] Several forced labor camps for Jews were established in Italian-controlled Libya; almost 2,600 Libyan Jews were sent to camps, where 562 died.[267]
In Finland, the government was pressured in 1942 to hand over its 150–200 non-Finnish Jews to Germany. After opposition from both the government and public, eight non-Finnish Jews were deported in late 1942; only one survived the war.[268] Japan had little antisemitism in its society and did not persecute Jews in most of the territories it controlled. Jews in Shanghai were confined, but despite German pressure they were not killed.[269]
Final Solution
Pearl Harbor, Germany declares war on the United States
On 7 December 1941, Japanese aircraft attacked Pearl Harbor, an American naval base in Honolulu, Hawaii, killing 2,403 Americans. The following day, the United States declared war on Japan, and on 11 December, Germany declared war on the United States.[270] According to Deborah Dwork and Robert Jan van Pelt, Hitler had trusted American Jews, whom he assumed were all powerful, to keep the United States out of the war in the interests of German Jews. When America declared war, he blamed the Jews.[271]
Nearly three years earlier, on 30 January 1939, Hitler had told the Reichstag: "if the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will be not the Bolshevising of the earth, and thus a victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!"[272] In the view of Christian Gerlach, Hitler "announced his decision in principle" to annihilate the Jews on or around 12 December 1941, one day after his declaration of war. On that day, Hitler gave a speech in his apartment at the Reich Chancellery to senior Nazi Party leaders: the Reichsleiter and the Gauleiter.[273] The following day, Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda, noted in his diary:
Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it.[s]
Christopher Browning argues that Hitler gave no order during the Reich Chancellery meeting but made clear that he had intended his 1939 warning to the Jews to be taken literally, and he signaled to party leaders that they could give appropriate orders to others.[275] According to Gerlach, an unidentified former German Sicherheitsdienst officer wrote in a report in 1944, after defecting to Switzerland: "After America entered the war, the annihilation (Ausrottung) of all European Jews was initiated on the Führer's order."[276]
Four days after Hitler's meeting with party leaders, Hans Frank, Governor-General of the General Government area of occupied Poland, who was at the meeting, spoke to district governors: "We must put an end to the Jews ... I will in principle proceed only on the assumption that they will disappear. They must go."[277][t] On 18 December 1941, Hitler and Himmler held a meeting to which Himmler referred in his appointment book as "Juden frage | als Partisanen auszurotten" ("Jewish question / to be exterminated as partisans"). Browning interprets this as a meeting to discuss how to justify and speak about the killing.[279]
Wannsee Conference (20 January 1942)
SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA), convened what became known as the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942 at Am Großen Wannsee 56–58, a villa in Berlin's Wannsee suburb.[280] The meeting had been scheduled for 9 December 1941, and invitations had been sent between 29 November and 1 December,[281] but on 8 December it had been postponed indefinitely, probably because of Pearl Harbor.[282] On 8 January, Heydrich sent out notes again, this time suggesting 20 January.[283]
The 15 men present at Wannsee included Heydrich, SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann, head of Reich Security Head Office Referat IV B4 ("Jewish affairs"); SS Major General Heinrich Müller, head of RSHA Department IV (the Gestapo); and other SS and party leaders.[u] According to Browning, eight of the 15 had doctorates: "Thus it was not a dimwitted crowd unable to grasp what was going to be said to them."[285] Thirty copies of the minutes, the Wannsee Protocol, were made. Copy no. 16 was found by American prosecutors in March 1947 in a German Foreign Office folder.[286] Written by Eichmann and stamped "Top Secret", the minutes were written in "euphemistic language" on Heydrich's instructions, according to Eichmann's later testimony.[287]
Discussing plans for a "final solution to the Jewish question" ("Endlösung der Judenfrage"), and a "final solution to the Jewish question in Europe" ("Endlösung der europäischen Judenfrage"),[288] the conference was held to coordinate efforts and policies ("Parallelisierung der Linienführung"), and to ensure that authority rested with Heydrich. There was discussion about whether to include the German Mischlinge (half-Jews).[289] Heydrich told the meeting: "Another possible solution of the problem has now taken the place of emigration, i.e. the evacuation of the Jews to the East, provided that the Fuehrer gives the appropriate approval in advance."[288] He continued:
Under proper guidance, in the course of the Final Solution, the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in the East. Able-bodied Jews, separated according to sex, will be taken in large work columns to these areas for work on roads, in the course of which action doubtless a large portion will be eliminated by natural causes.
The possible final remnant will, since it will undoubtedly consist of the most resistant portion, have to be treated accordingly because it is the product of natural selection and would, if released, act as the seed of a new Jewish revival. (See the experience of history.)
In the course of the practical execution of the Final Solution, Europe will be combed through from west to east. Germany proper, including the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, will have to be handled first due to the housing problem and additional social and political necessities.
The evacuated Jews will first be sent, group by group, to so-called transit ghettos, from which they will be transported to the East.[288]
The evacuations were regarded as provisional ("Ausweichmöglichkeiten").[290][w] The final solution would encompass the 11 million Jews living in territories controlled by Germany and elsewhere in Europe, including Britain, Ireland, Switzerland, Turkey, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, and Hungary, "dependent on military developments".[290] According to Longerich, "the Jews were to be annihilated by a combination of forced labour and mass murder."[292]
Extermination camps
At the end of 1941 in occupied Poland, the Germans began building additional camps or expanding existing ones. Auschwitz, for example, was expanded in October 1941 by building Auschwitz II-Birkenau a few kilometers away.[5] By the spring or summer of 1942, gas chambers had been installed in these new facilities, except for Chełmno, which used gas vans.
| Camp | Location (occupied Poland) |
Deaths | Gas chambers |
Gas vans |
Construction began |
Mass gassing began |
Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Auschwitz II | Brzezinka | 1,082,000 (all Auschwitz camps; includes 960,000 Jews)[x] |
4[y] | Oct 1941 (built as POW camp)[296] |
c. 20 Mar 1942[297][z] | [160] | |
| Bełżec | Bełżec | 600,000[161] |  |
1 Nov 1941[298] | 17 Mar 1942[298] | [161] | |
| Chełmno | Chełmno nad Nerem | 320,000[162] | |
8 Dec 1941[299] | [162] | ||
| Majdanek | Lublin | 78,000[300] | |
7 Oct 1941 (built as POW camp)[301] |
Oct 1942[302] | [163] | |
| Sobibór | Sobibór | 250,000[164] | |
Feb 1942[303] | May 1942[303] | [164] | |
| Treblinka | Treblinka | 870,000[165] | |
May 1942[304] | 23 July 1942[304] | [165] | |
| Total | 3,218,000 |
Other camps sometimes described as extermination camps include Maly Trostinets near Minsk in the occupied Soviet Union, where 65,000 are thought to have died, mostly by shooting but also in gas vans;[305] Mauthausen in Austria;[306] Stutthof, near Gdańsk, Poland;[307] and Sachsenhausen and Ravensbrück in Germany.[308]
Gas vans
Chełmno, with gas vans only, had its roots in the Aktion T4 euthanasia program.[310] In December 1939 and January 1940, gas vans equipped with gas cylinders and a sealed compartment had been used to kill disabled people in occupied Poland.[311] As the mass shootings continued in Russia, Himmler and his subordinates in the field feared that the murders were causing psychological problems for the SS,[312] and began searching for more efficient methods. In December 1941, similar vans, using exhaust fumes rather than bottled gas, were introduced into the camp at Chełmno,[298] Victims were asphyxiated while being driven to prepared burial pits in the nearby forests.[313] The vans were also used in the occupied Soviet Union, for example in smaller clearing actions in the Minsk ghetto,[314] and in Yugoslavia.[315] Apparently, as with the mass shootings, the vans caused emotional problems for the operators, and the small number of victims the vans could handle made them ineffective.[316]
Gas chambers
Christian Gerlach writes that over three million Jews were murdered in 1942, the year that "marked the peak" of the mass murder.[317] At least 1.4 million of these were in the General Government area of Poland.[318] Victims usually arrived at the extermination camps by freight train.[319] Almost all arrivals at Bełżec, Sobibór and Treblinka were sent directly to the gas chambers,[320] with individuals occasionally selected to replace dead workers.[321] At Auschwitz, about 20 percent of Jews were selected to work.[322] Those selected for death at all camps were told to undress and hand their valuables to camp workers.[42] They were then herded naked into the gas chambers. To prevent panic, they were told the gas chambers were showers or delousing chambers.[323]
At Auschwitz, after the chambers were filled, the doors were shut and pellets of Zyklon-B were dropped into the chambers through vents,[324] releasing toxic prussic acid.[325] Those inside died within 20 minutes; the speed of death depended on how close the inmate was standing to a gas vent, according to the commandant Rudolf Höss, who estimated that about one-third of the victims died immediately.[326] Johann Kremer, an SS doctor who oversaw the gassings, testified that: "Shouting and screaming of the victims could be heard through the opening and it was clear that they fought for their lives."[327] The gas was then pumped out, and the Sonderkommando—work groups of mostly Jewish prisoners—carried out the bodies, extracted gold fillings, cut off women's hair, and removed jewelry, artificial limbs and glasses.[328] At Auschwitz, the bodies were at first buried in deep pits and covered with lime, but between September and November 1942, on the orders of Himmler, 100,000 bodies were dug up and burned. In early 1943, new gas chambers and crematoria were built to accommodate the numbers.[329]
Bełżec, Sobibór and Treblinka became known as the Operation Reinhard camps, named after the German plan to murder the Jews in the General Government area of occupied Poland.[330] Between March 1942 and November 1943, around 1,526,500 Jews were gassed in these three camps in gas chambers using carbon monoxide from the exhaust fumes of stationary diesel engines.[5] Gold fillings were pulled from the corpses before burial, but unlike in Auschwitz the women's hair was cut before death. At Treblinka, to calm the victims, the arrival platform was made to look like a train station, complete with a fake clock.[331] Most of the victims at these three camps were buried in pits at first. From mid-1942, as part of Sonderaktion 1005, prisoners at Auschwitz, Chelmno, Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka were forced to exhume and burn bodies that had been buried, in part to hide the evidence, and in part because of the terrible smell pervading the camps and a fear that the drinking water would become polluted.[332] The corpses—700,000 in Treblinka—were burned on wood in open fire pits and the remaining bones crushed into powder.[333]
Collaboration
Although the Holocaust was planned and directed by Germans, the Nazi regime found willing collaborators in other countries (e.g. the Ustashe of Croatia), or forced others into participation.[334] This included individual collaboration as well as state collaboration. According to Dan Stone the Holocaust was a pan-European phenomenon, a series of "Holocausts" impossible to conduct without local collaborators and Germany's allies.[335] Stone writes that "many European states, under the extreme circumstances of World War II, took upon themselves the task of solving the 'Jewish question' in their own way."[336]
Resistance
Jewish resistance
There was almost no resistance in the ghettos in Poland until the end of 1942.[338] Raul Hilberg accounted for this by evoking the history of Jewish persecution: compliance might avoid inflaming the situation until the onslaught abated.[339] Timothy Snyder noted that it was only during the three months after the deportations of July–September 1942 that agreement on the need for armed resistance was reached.[340]
Several resistance groups were formed, such as the Jewish Combat Organization (ŻOB) and Jewish Military Union (ŻZW) in the Warsaw Ghetto and the United Partisan Organization in Vilna.[341] Over 100 revolts and uprisings occurred in at least 19 ghettos and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. The best known is the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising in April 1943, when the Germans arrived to send the remaining inhabitants to extermination camps. Forced to retreat on 19 April from the ŻOB and ŻZW fighters, they returned later that day under the command of SS General Jürgen Stroop (author of the Stroop Report about the uprising).[342] Around 1,000 poorly armed fighters held the SS at bay for four weeks.[343] Polish and Jewish accounts stated that hundreds or thousands of Germans had been killed,[344] while the Germans reported 16 dead.[345] The Germans said that 14,000 Jews had been killed—7000 during the fighting and 7000 sent to Treblinka[346]—and between 53,000[347] and 56,000 deported.[345] According to Gwardia Ludowa, a Polish resistance newspaper, in May 1943:
From behind the screen of smoke and fire, in which the ranks of fighting Jewish partisans are dying, the legend of the exceptional fighting qualities of the Germans is being undermined. ... The fighting Jews have won for us what is most important: the truth about the weakness of the Germans.[348]
During a revolt in Treblinka on 2 August 1943, inmates killed five or six guards and set fire to camp buildings; several managed to escape.[349] In the Białystok Ghetto on 16 August, Jewish insurgents fought for five days when the Germans announced mass deportations.[350] On 14 October, Jewish prisoners in Sobibór attempted an escape, killing 11 SS officers, as well as two or three Ukrainian and Volksdeutsche guards. According to Yitzhak Arad, this was the highest number of SS officers killed in a single revolt.[351] Around 300 inmates escaped (out of 600 in the main camp), but 100 were recaptured and shot.[352] On 7 October 1944, 300 Jewish members, mostly Greek or Hungarian, of the Sonderkommando at Auschwitz learned they were about to be killed, and staged an uprising, blowing up crematorium IV.[353] Three SS officers were killed.[354] The Sonderkommando at crematorium II threw their Oberkapo into an oven when they heard the commotion, believing that a camp uprising had begun.[355] By the time the SS had regained control, 451 members of the Sonderkommando were dead; 212 survived.[356]
Estimates of Jewish participation in partisan units throughout Europe range from 20,000 to 100,000.[357] In the occupied Polish and Soviet territories, thousands of Jews fled into the swamps or forests and joined the partisans,[358] although the partisan movements did not always welcome them.[359] An estimated 20,000 to 30,000 joined the Soviet partisan movement.[360] One of the famous Jewish groups was the Bielski partisans in Belarus, led by the Bielski brothers.[358] Jews also joined Polish forces, including the Home Army. According to Timothy Snyder, "more Jews fought in the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944 than in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of April 1943."[361][aa]
Polish resistance and flow of information
The Polish government-in-exile in London received information about the extermination camp at Auschwitz from the Polish leadership in Warsaw from 1940 onwards, and by August 1942 there was "a continual flow of information to and from Poland", according to Michael Fleming.[367] This was in large measure thanks to Captain Witold Pilecki of the Polish Home Army, who was sent to the camp in September 1940 after allowing himself to be arrested in Warsaw. An inmate until he escaped in April 1943, his mission was to set up a resistance movement (ZOW), prepare to take over the camp, and smuggle out information.[368]
On 6 January 1942, the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov, sent out diplomatic notes about German atrocities, based on reports about mass graves and bodies surfacing in areas the Red Army had liberated, as well as witness reports from German-occupied areas.[369] According to Fleming, in May and June 1942, London was told about the extermination camps at Chełmno, Sobibór, and Bełzėc.[370] Szlama Ber Winer escaped from Chełmno in February and passed information to the Oneg Shabbat group in the Warsaw Ghetto;[162] his report was known by his pseudonym as the Grojanowski Report.[371] Also in 1942, Jan Karski sent information to the Allies after being smuggled into the Warsaw Ghetto twice.[372] By c. July 1942, Polish leaders in Warsaw had learned about the mass killing of Jews in Auschwitz.[ab] The Polish Interior Ministry prepared a report, Sprawozdanie 6/42,[374] which said at the end:
There are different methods of execution. People are shot by firing squads, killed by an "air hammer" /Hammerluft/, and poisoned by gas in special gas chambers. Prisoners condemned to death by the Gestapo are murdered by the first two methods. The third method, the gas chamber, is employed for those who are ill or incapable of work and those who have been brought in transports especially for the purpose /Soviet prisoners of war, and, recently Jews/.[375]
Sprawozdanie 6/42 had reached London by 12 November 1942, where it was translated into English to become part of a 108-page report, "Report on Conditions in Poland", on which the date 27 November 1942 was handwritten. This report was sent to the Polish Embassy in Washington, D.C.[376] On 10 December 1942, the Polish Foreign Affairs Minister, Edward Raczyński, addressed the fledgling United Nations on the killings; the address was distributed with the title The Mass Extermination of Jews in German Occupied Poland. He told them about the use of poison gas; about Treblinka, Bełżec and Sobibór; that the Polish underground had referred to them as extermination camps; and that tens of thousands of Jews had been killed in Bełżec in March and April 1942.[377] One in three Jews in Poland were already dead, he estimated, from a population of 3,130,000.[378] Raczyński's address was covered by the New York Times and The Times of London. Winston Churchill received it, and Anthony Eden presented it to the British cabinet. On 17 December 1942, 11 Allies issued the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations condemning the "bestial policy of cold-blooded extermination".[379]
The British and American governments were reluctant to publicize the intelligence they had received. A BBC Hungarian Service memo, written by Carlile Macartney, said in 1942: "We shouldn't mention the Jews at all." The British government's view was that the Hungarian people's antisemitism would make them distrust the Allies if Allied broadcasts focused on the Jews.[380] In the United States, where antisemitism and isolationism were common, the government similarly feared turning the war into one about the Jews.[381] Although governments and the German public appear to have understood what was happening to the Jews, it seems the Jews themselves did not. According to Saul Friedländer, "[t]estimonies left by Jews from all over occupied Europe indicate that, in contradistinction to vast segments of surrounding society, the victims did not understand what was ultimately in store for them." In Western Europe, he writes, Jewish communities failed to piece the information together, while in Eastern Europe they could not accept that the stories they had heard from elsewhere would end up applying to them too.[382]
End of the war
The Holocaust in Hungary
By 1943 it was evident to the leadership of the armed forces that Germany was losing the war.[384] Rail shipments of Jews were still arriving regularly from western and southern Europe at the extermination camps.[385] Shipments of Jews had priority on the German railways over anything but the army's needs, and continued even in the face of the increasingly dire military situation at the end of 1942.[386] Army leaders and economic managers complained about this diversion of resources and the killing of skilled Jewish workers,[387] but Nazi leaders rated ideological imperatives above economic considerations.[388]
The mass murder reached a "frenetic" pace in 1944[389] when Auschwitz gassed nearly 500,000 people.[390] On 19 March 1944, Hitler ordered the military occupation of Hungary and dispatched Adolf Eichmann to supervise the deportation of its Jews.[391] Between 15 May and 9 July, 440,000 Jews were deported from Hungary to Auschwitz II-Birkenau, almost all sent directly to the gas chambers.[392] A month before the deportations began, Eichmann offered through an intermediary, Joel Brand, to exchange one million Jews for 10,000 trucks from the Allies, which the Germans would agree not to use on the Western front.[393] The British thwarted the proposal by leaking it. The Times called it "a new level of fantasy and self-deception".[394]
Death marches
As the Soviet armed forces advanced, the SS closed down the camps in eastern Poland and tried to conceal what had happened. The gas chambers were dismantled, the crematoria dynamited, and the mass graves dug up and corpses cremated.[395] From January to April 1945, the SS sent inmates westward on death marches to camps in Germany and Austria.[396][397] In January 1945, the Germans held records of 714,000 inmates in concentration camps; by May, 250,000 (35 percent) had died during these marches.[398] Already sick after exposure to violence and starvation, they were marched to train stations and transported for days without food or shelter in open freight cars, then forced to march again at the other end to the new camp. Some went by truck or wagons; others were marched the entire distance. Those who lagged behind or fell were shot.[399]
Liberation
The first major camp encountered by Allied troops, Majdanek, was discovered by the advancing Soviets, along with its gas chambers, on 25 July 1944.[400] Treblinka, Sobibór, and Bełżec were never liberated, but were destroyed by the Germans in 1943.[401] On 17 January 1945, 58,000 Auschwitz inmates were sent on a death march westwards;[402] when the camp was liberated by the Soviets on 27 January, they found just 7,000 inmates in the three main camps and 500 in subcamps.[403] Buchenwald was liberated by the Americans on 11 April;[404] Bergen-Belsen by the British on 15 April;[405] Dachau by the Americans on 29 April;[406] Ravensbrück by the Soviets on 30 April;[407] and Mauthausen by the Americans on 5 May.[408] The Red Cross took control of Theresienstadt on 3 May, days before the Soviets arrived.[409]
The British 11th Armoured Division found around 60,000 prisoners (90 percent Jews) when they liberated Bergen-Belsen,[405][410] as well as 13,000 unburied corpses; another 10,000 people died from typhus or malnutrition over the following weeks.[411] The BBC's war correspondent Richard Dimbleby described the scenes that greeted him and the British Army at Belsen, in a report so graphic the BBC declined to broadcast it for four days, and did so, on 19 April, only after Dimbleby threatened to resign.[412] He said he had "never seen British soldiers so moved to cold fury":[413]
Here over an acre of ground lay dead and dying people. You could not see which was which. ... The living lay with their heads against the corpses and around them moved the awful, ghostly procession of emaciated, aimless people, with nothing to do and with no hope of life, unable to move out of your way, unable to look at the terrible sights around them ... Babies had been born here, tiny wizened things that could not live. A mother, driven mad, screamed at a British sentry to give her milk for her child, and thrust the tiny mite into his arms. ... He opened the bundle and found the baby had been dead for days. This day at Belsen was the most horrible of my life.
— Richard Dimbleby, 15 April 1945[414]
Death toll
| Country | Jews (pre-war) |
Holocaust deaths |
|---|---|---|
| Albania | 200–591 | |
| Austria | 185,000–192,000 | 48,767–65,000 |
| Belgium | 55,000–70,000 | 24,000–29,902 |
| Bohemia and Moravia |
92,000–118,310 | 78,150–80,000 |
| Bulgaria | 50,000 | 7,335 |
| Denmark | 7,500–7,800 | 60–116 |
| Estonia | 4,500 | 1,500–2,000 |
| Finland | 2,000 | 7–8 |
| France | 330,000–350,000 | 73,320–90,000 |
| Germany (1933) | 523,000–525,000 | 130,000–160,000 |
| Greece | 77,380 | 58,443–67,000 |
| Hungary | 725,000–825,000 | 200,000–569,000 |
| Italy | 42,500–44,500 | 5,596–9,000 |
| Latvia | 91,500–95,000 | 60,000–85,000 |
| Lithuania | 168,000 | 130,000–200,000 |
| Luxembourg | 3,800 | 720–2,000 |
| Netherlands | 140,000 | 98,800–120,000 |
| Norway | 1,700–1,800 | 758–1,000 |
| Poland | 3,300,000–3,500,000 | 2,700,000–3,000,000 |
| Romania (1930) | 756,000 | 270,000–287,000 |
| Slovakia | 136,000 | 68,000–100,000 |
| Soviet Union | 3,020,000 | 700,000–2,500,000 |
| Yugoslavia | 78,000–82,242 | 51,400–67,438 |
| Total | 9,702,930–10,169,332 | 4,707,056–7,442,390 |
The Jews killed represented around one third of world Jewry[416] and about two-thirds of European Jewry, based on a pre-war figure of 9.7 million Jews in Europe.[417] Most heavily concentrated in the east, the pre-war Jewish population in Europe was 3.5 million in Poland; 3 million in the Soviet Union; nearly 800,000 in Romania, and 700,000 in Hungary. Germany had over 500,000.[415]
The most commonly cited death toll is the six million given by Adolf Eichmann to SS member Wilhelm Höttl, who signed an affidavit mentioning this figure in 1945.[418][ac] Historians' estimates range from 4,204,000 to 7,000,000.[419] According to Yad Vashem, "[a]ll the serious research" confirms that between five and six million Jews died.[ac]
Much of the uncertainty stems from the lack of a reliable figure for Jews in Europe in 1939, border changes that make double-counting of victims difficult to avoid, lack of accurate records from the perpetrators, and uncertainty about whether to include post-liberation deaths caused by the persecution.[420] Early postwar calculations were 4.2–4.5 million from Gerald Reitlinger,[420] 5.1 million from Raul Hilberg, and 5.95 million from Jacob Lestschinsky.[421] In 1990, Yehuda Bauer and Robert Rozett estimated 5.59–5.86 million,[422] and in 1991, Wolfgang Benz suggested 5.29 to just over 6 million.[423][ac] The figures include over one million children.[425]
The death camps in occupied Poland accounted for half the Jews killed. At Auschwitz, the Jewish death toll was 960,000;[426] Treblinka 870,000;[165] Bełżec 600,000;[161] Chełmno 320,000;[162] Sobibór 250,000;[164] and Majdanek 79,000.[163]
Death rates were heavily dependent on the survival of European states willing to protect their Jewish citizens.[427] In countries allied to Germany, the state's control over its citizens, including the Jews, was seen as a matter of sovereignty. The continuous presence of state institutions thereby prevented the Jewish communities' complete destruction.[427] In occupied countries, the survival of the state was likewise correlated with lower Jewish death rates: 75 percent of Jews survived in France and 99 percent in Denmark, but 75 percent died in the Netherlands, as did 99 percent of Jews who were in Estonia when the Germans arrived—the Nazis declared Estonia Judenfrei ("free of Jews") in January 1942 at the Wannsee Conference.[428]
The survival of Jews in countries where states were not destroyed demonstrates the "crucial" influence of non-Germans (governments and others), according to Christian Gerlach.[429] Jews who lived where pre-war statehood was destroyed (Poland and the Baltic states) or displaced (western USSR) were at the mercy of sometimes-hostile local populations, in addition to the Germans. Almost all Jews in German-occupied Poland, the Baltic states and the USSR were killed, with a 5 percent chance of survival on average.[427] Of Poland's 3.3 million Jews, about 90 percent were killed.[430]
Other victims of Nazi persecution
Soviet civilians and POWs
The Nazis regarded the Slavs as Untermenschen.[24] German troops destroyed villages throughout the Soviet Union,[431] rounded up civilians for forced labor in Germany, and caused famine by taking foodstuffs.[432] In Belarus, Germany imposed a regime that deported 380,000 people for slave labor, killed 1.6 million, and destroyed at least 5,295 settlements.[433] The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum estimates that 3.3 million of 5.7 million Soviet POWs died in German custody.[434] The death rates decreased when the POWs were needed to help the German war effort; by 1943, half a million had been deployed as slave labor.[435]
Ethnic Poles
From the start of the war against Poland, Germany intended to realize Adolf Hitler's plan, set out in his book Mein Kampf, to acquire "living space" (Lebensraum) in the east for massive settlement of German colonists.[436][437] Hitler's plan combined classic imperialism with Nazi racial ideology.[438] While the long term goal of Nazi Germany was removal of Jews from occupied Poland, Poles were the first victims of German physical terror during the first months of the occupation, and the SS hierarchy defined ethnic Poles as the principal enemy, with calls to destroy the "Polish element" in the western part of annexed Poland.[439]
On 7 September 1939, Reinhard Heydrich stated that all Polish nobles, clergy, and Jews were to be killed.[440] On 12 September, Wilhelm Keitel added Poland's intelligentsia to the list. On 15 March 1940, SS chief Heinrich Himmler stated: "All Polish specialists will be exploited in our military-industrial complex. Later, all Poles will disappear from this world. It is imperative that the great German nation consider the elimination of all Polish people as its chief task."[441] At the end of 1940, Hitler confirmed the plan to liquidate "all leading elements in Poland".[442] After Germany lost the war, the International Military Tribunal at the Nuremberg Trials and Poland's Supreme National Tribunal concluded that the aim of German policies in Poland – the extermination of Poles and Jews – was a genocide in biological terms.[443][444] An estimated 1.8–1.9 million non-Jewish Polish citizens were killed by Germans during the war.[445] At least 200,000 died in concentration camps, around 146,000 in Auschwitz.[446] Others died in massacres or in revolts such as the Warsaw Uprising, where 150,000–200,000 were killed.[447]
Roma
Germany and its allies killed up to 220,000 Roma, around 25 percent of the community in Europe.[448][449] Robert Ritter, head of Germany's Racial Hygiene and Demographic Biology Research Unit, called them "a peculiar form of the human species who are incapable of development and came about by mutation".[450] In May 1942, they were placed under similar laws to the Jews, and in December Himmler ordered that they be sent to Auschwitz, unless they had served in the Wehrmacht.[451] He adjusted the order on 15 November 1943 to allow "sedentary Gypsies and part-Gypsies" in the occupied Soviet areas to be viewed as citizens.[452] In Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, the Roma were subject to restrictions on movement and confinement to collection camps,[453] while in Eastern Europe they were sent to concentration camps, where large numbers were murdered.[454]
Political and religious opponents
German communists, socialists and trade unionists were among the first to be sent to concentration camps.[455] Nacht und Nebel ("Night and Fog"), a directive issued by Hitler on 7 December 1941, resulted in the disappearance, torture and death of political activists throughout German-occupied Europe; the courts had sentenced 1,793 people to death by April 1944, according to Jack Fischel.[456] Because they refused to pledge allegiance to the Nazi party or serve in the military, Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps, where they were given the option of renouncing their faith and submitting to the state's authority.[457] Between 2,700 and 3,300 were sent to the camps, where 1,400 died.[458] According to German historian Detlef Garbe, "no other religious movement resisted the pressure to conform to National Socialism with comparable unanimity and steadfastness."[459]
Gay men, Afro-Germans
Around 100,000 gay men were arrested in Germany and 50,000 jailed between 1933 and 1945; 5,000–15,000 are thought to have been sent to concentration camps.[460] Hundreds were castrated, sometimes "voluntarily" to avoid criminal sentences.[461] In 1936, Himmler created the Reich Central Office for the Combating of Homosexuality and Abortion.[462] The police closed gay bars and shut down gay publications.[460] Lesbians were left relatively unaffected; the Nazis saw them as "asocials", rather than sexual deviants.[463] There were 5,000–25,000 Afro-Germans in Germany when the Nazis came to power.[464] Although blacks in Germany and German-occupied Europe were subjected to incarceration, sterilization and murder, there was no program to kill them as a group.[465]
Aftermath
Trials
(Front row, left to right): Hermann Göring, Rudolf Heß, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel
(Second row, left to right): Karl Dönitz, Erich Raeder, Baldur von Schirach, Fritz Sauckel
The Nuremberg trials were a series of military tribunals held after the war by the Allies in Nuremberg, Germany, to prosecute the German leadership. The first was the 1945–1946 trial of 22 political and military leaders before the International Military Tribunal.[466] Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels had committed suicide months earlier.[467] The prosecution entered indictments against 24 men (two were dropped before the end of the trial)[ad] and seven organizations: the Reich Cabinet, Schutzstaffel (SS), Sicherheitsdienst (SD), Gestapo, Sturmabteilung (SA), and the "General Staff and High Command".[468]
The indictments were for participation in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of a crime against peace; planning, initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace; war crimes; and crimes against humanity. The tribunal passed judgements ranging from acquittal to death by hanging.[468] Eleven defendants were executed, including Joachim von Ribbentrop, Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Rosenberg, and Alfred Jodl. Ribbentrop, the judgement declared, "played an important part in Hitler's 'final solution of the Jewish question'."[469]
The subsequent Nuremberg trials, 1946–1949, tried another 185 defendants.[470] West Germany initially tried few ex-Nazis, but after the 1958 Ulm Einsatzkommando trial, the government set up a dedicated agency.[471] Other trials of Nazis and collaborators took place in Western and Eastern Europe. In 1960 Mossad agents captured Adolf Eichmann in Argentina and brought him to Israel to stand trial on 15 indictments, including war crimes, crimes against humanity, and crimes against the Jewish people. He was convicted in December 1961 and executed in June 1962. Eichmann's trial and death revived interest in war criminals and the Holocaust in general.[472]
Reparations
The government of Israel requested $1.5 billion from the Federal Republic of Germany in March 1951 to finance the rehabilitation of 500,000 Jewish survivors, arguing that Germany had stolen $6 billion from the European Jews. Israelis were divided about the idea of taking money from Germany. The Conference on Jewish Material Claims Against Germany (known as the Claims Conference) was opened in New York, and after negotiations the claim was reduced to $845 million.[473][474]
West Germany allocated another $125 million for reparations in 1988. Companies such as BMW, Deutsche Bank, Ford, Opel, Siemens, and Volkswagen faced lawsuits for their use of forced labor during the war.[473] In response, Germany set up the "Remembrance, Responsibility and Future" Foundation in 2000, which paid €4.45 billion to former slave laborers (up to €7,670 each).[475] In 2013 Germany agreed to provide €772 million to fund nursing care, social services, and medication for 56,000 Holocaust survivors around the world.[476] The French state-owned railway company, the SNCF, agreed in 2014 to pay $60 million to Jewish-American survivors, around $100,000 each, for its role in the transport of 76,000 Jews from France to extermination camps between 1942 and 1944.[477]
Historikerstreit and the uniqueness question
In the early decades of Holocaust studies, scholars approached the Holocaust as a genocide unique in its reach and specificity.[478] This was questioned in the 1980s during the West German Historikerstreit ("historians' dispute"), an attempt to re-position the Holocaust within German historiography.[479][ae]
Ernst Nolte triggered the Historikerstreit in June 1986 with an article in the conservative newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung: "The past that will not pass: A speech that could be written but no longer delivered."[481][af] The Nazi era was suspended like a sword over Germany's present, he wrote, rather than being studied as an historical event like any other. Comparing Auschwitz to the Gulag, he suggested that the Holocaust was a response to Hitler's fear of the Soviet Union: "Did the Gulag Archipelago not precede Auschwitz? Was the Bolshevik murder of an entire class not the logical and factual prius of the 'racial murder' of National Socialism? ... Was Auschwitz perhaps rooted in a past that would not pass?"[ag]
Nolte's arguments were viewed as an attempt to normalize the Holocaust.[485][ah] In September 1986 in Die Zeit, Eberhard Jäckel responded that "never before had a state, with the authority of its leader, decided and announced that a specific group of humans, including the elderly, women, children and infants, would be killed as quickly as possible, then carried out this resolution using every possible means of state power."[h] Despite the criticism of Nolte, the Historikerstreit put "the question of comparison" on the agenda, according to Dan Stone in 2010.[479] Stone argued that the idea of the Holocaust as unique was overtaken by attempts to place it within the context of Stalinism, ethnic cleansing, and the Nazis' intentions for post-war "demographic reordering", particularly the Generalplan Ost, the plan to kill tens of millions of Slavs to create living space for Germans.[487] Jäckel's position continued nevertheless to inform the views of many specialists. Richard J. Evans argued in 2015:
Thus although the Nazi "Final Solution" was one genocide among many, it had features that made it stand out from all the rest as well. Unlike all the others it was bounded neither by space nor by time. It was launched not against a local or regional obstacle, but at a world-enemy seen as operating on a global scale. It was bound to an even larger plan of racial reordering and reconstruction involving further genocidal killing on an almost unimaginable scale, aimed, however, at clearing the way in a particular region – Eastern Europe – for a further struggle against the Jews and those the Nazis regarded as their puppets. It was set in motion by ideologues who saw world history in racial terms. It was, in part, carried out by industrial methods. These things all make it unique.
— Richard Evans, "Was the 'Final Solution' Unique?", The Third Reich in History and Memory.[488]
Notes
- ^ a b c Matt Brosnan (Imperial War Museum, 2018): "The Holocaust was the systematic murder of Europe's Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators during the Second World War."[23]
Jack R. Fischel (Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust, 2020): "The Holocaust refers to the Nazi objective of annihilating every Jewish man, woman, and child who fell under their control. By the end of World War II, approximately six million Jews had been murdered by the Nazis and their collaborators."[15]
Peter Hayes (How Was It Possible? A Holocaust Reader, 2015): "The Holocaust, the Nazi attempt to eradicate the Jews of Europe ... Hitler's ideology depicted the Jews as uniquely dangerous to Germany ... The threat posted by supposedly corrupting but generally powerless Sinti and Roma was far less, and therefore addressed inconsistently in the Nazi realm. Gay men were defined as a problem only if they were German or having sex with Germans and considered 'curable' in most cases. ... Germany's murderous intent toward the handicapped ... was more comprehensive ... but here, too, implementation was uneven .... Not only were some Slavs—Slovaks, Croats, Bulgarians, some Ukrainians—allotted a favored place in Hitler's New Order, but the fate of most of the other Slavs the Nazis derided as sub-humans ... consisted of enslavement and gradual attrition, not the prompt massacre meted out to the Jews after 1941."[24]
Raul Hilberg (The Destruction of the European Jews, 2003 [1961]): "Little by little, some documents were gathered and books were written, and after about two decades the annihilation of the Jews was given a name: Holocaust."[25]
Ronnie S. Landau (The Nazi Holocaust: Its History and Meaning, 1992): "The Holocaust involved the deliberate, systematic murder of approximately 6 million Jews in Nazi-dominated Europe between 1941 and 1945."[2]
Timothy D. Snyder (Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin, 2010): "In this book, Holocaust means the murder of the Jews in Europe, as carried out by the Germans by guns and gas between 1941 and 1945."[26]
Dan Stone (Histories of the Holocaust, 2010): "'Holocaust' ... refers to the genocide of the Jews, which by no means excludes an understanding that other groups—notably Romanies and Slavs—were victims of genocide."[27]
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (Holocaust Encyclopedia, 2017): "The Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution and murder of six million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators."[28]
David Wyman (The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945, 2007): "Between June 1941 and May 1945, five to six million Jews perished at the hands of the Nazis and their collaborators."[29]
Yad Vashem (undated): "The Holocaust was the murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators. Between the German invasion of the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941 and the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Nazi Germany and its accomplices strove to murder every Jew under their domination."[30]
- ^ Hebrew: השואה, HaShoah, "the catastrophe"
- ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: "According to the American Jewish Yearbook, the Jewish population of Europe was about 9.5 million in 1933. ... By 1945, most European Jews—two out of every three—had been killed."[4]
- ^ Oxford Dictionaries (2017): "from Old French holocauste, via late Latin from Greek holokauston, from holos 'whole' + kaustos 'burnt' (from kaiein 'burn')".[11]
- ^ The term shoah was used in a pamphlet in 1940, Sho'at Yehudei Polin ("Sho'ah of Polish Jews"), published by the United Aid Committee for the Jews in Poland.[13]
- ^ The Hebrew word churban is mostly used by Orthodox Jews to refer to the Holocaust.[21]
- ^ Michael Gray, a specialist in Holocaust education,[32] offers three definitions of the Holocaust: (a) "the persecution and murder of Jews by the Nazis and their collaborators between 1933 and 1945", which includes Kristallnacht in 1938; (b) "the systematic mass murder of the Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1941 and 1945," which recognizes the German policy shift in 1941 toward extermination; and (c) "the persecution and murder of various groups by the Nazi regime and its collaborators between 1933 and 1945," which fails to recognize that the European Jews were targeted for annihilation.[33]
- ^ a b Eberhard Jäckel (Die Zeit, 12 September 1986): "Ich behaupte ... daß der nationalsozialistische Mord an den Juden deswegen einzigartig war, weil noch nie zuvor ein Staat mit der Autorität seines verantwortlichen Führers beschlossen und angekündigt hatte, eine bestimmte Menschengruppe einschließlich der Alten, der Frauen, der Kinder und der Säuglinge möglichst restlos zu töten, und diesen Beschluß mit allen nur möglichen staatlichen Machtmitteln in die Tat umsetzte." ("I maintain ... that the National Socialist killing of the Jews was unique in that never before had a state with the authority of its leader decided and announced that a specific group of humans, including the elderly, the women, the children and the infants, would be killed as quickly as possible, and then carried out this resolution using every possible means of state power.")[38]
- ^ The full extent of Mengele's work is unknown because records he sent to Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer are assumed to have been destroyed.[50]
- ^ The French had planned to try Grynszpan for murder, but the German invasion in 1940 interrupted the proceedings. Grynszpan was handed over to the Germans and his fate is unknown.[110]
- ^ David Cesarani (2016): "The absence of consistency with regards to ghettos can be traced back to a fundamental confusion over means and ends. Were Jews to be expelled, placed in ghettos, or put to death? Until October 1941, the hope was that Jews would be expelled into Siberia after the end of hostilities."[125]
- ^ Jeremy Black writes that the ghettos were not intended, in 1939, as a step towards the extermination of the Jews. Instead, they were viewed as part of a policy of creating a territorial reservation to contain them.[135]
- ^ a b John-Paul Himka (2011): "Before war broke out, Lviv had been in Poland, but from September 1939 until the end of June 1941 it came under Soviet rule and was joined to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. It changed hands again on 30 June 1941, when the Germans took the city."[152]
- ^ About 42,000 Jews in the General Government were shot during Operation Harvest Festival (Aktion Erntefest) on 3–4 November 1943.[169]
- ^ In a memorandum ten days after the invasion, Reinhard Heydrich laid out the guidelines he had issued to the Einsatzgruppen: "All the following are to be executed: Officials of the Comintern (together with professional Communist politicians in general; top and medium-level officials and radical lower-level officials of the Party, Central Committee and district and sub-district committees; People's Commissars; Jews in the Party and State employment, and other radical elements (saboteurs, propagandists, snipers, assassins, inciters etc.) ... No steps will be taken to interfere with any purges that may be initiated by anti-Communist or anti-Jewish elements ... On the contrary, these are to be secretly encouraged." Cesarani writes that it is "noteworthy that Heyrich did not want the SS to be held responsible".[211]
- ^ Nikolaus Wachsmann (2015): "The genesis of the Holocaust was lengthy and complex. The days are long gone when historians believed that it could be reduced to a single decision taken on a single day by Hitler. Instead, the Holocaust was the culmination of a dynamic murderous process, propelled by increasingly radical initiatives from above and below. During World War II, the Nazi pursuit of a Final Solution moved from increasingly lethal plans for Jewish 'reservations' to immediate extermination. There were several key periods of radicalization. The invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 marked one such moment, as mass shootings of Jewish men of military age soon grew into widespread ethnic cleansing, with daily bloodbaths of women, children, and the elderly."[230]
- ^ "Už odbilo Židom! Najprísnejšie rasové zákony na Židov sú slovenské"
- ^ Those present included (annotated, left to right): Joseph Goebbels, Wilhelm Frick, Wilhelm Keitel, Walter von Brauchitsch, Erich Raeder, Joachim von Ribbentrop, Alfred Rosenberg, Adolf Hitler, and Hermann Göring.
- ^ Joseph Goebbels (13 December 1941): "Regarding the Jewish question, the Fuhrer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives."[274]
- ^ Frank continued by discussing their deportation, then asked: "But what is to happen to the Jews? ... In Berlin we were told "Why all this trouble? We cannot use them in the Ostland or the Reichskommissariat either; liquidate them yourselves!" Gentlemen, I must ask you, arm yourselves against any thoughts of compassion. We must destroy the Jews, wherever we encounter them and whenever it is possible, in order to preserve the entire structure of the Reich. ... We have an estimated 2.5 million Jews in the General Government, perhaps with the half-Jews and all that that entails some 3.5 million. We cannot shoot these 3.5 million Jews, we cannot poison them, but nonetheless we will take some kind of action that will lead to a successful destruction ... The General Government must become just as free of Jews as the Reich."[278]
- ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, "Participants at the Wannsee Conference":
For the SS:
SS General Reinhard Heydrich (chief of the Reich Security Main Office); SS Major General Heinrich Müller (Gestapo); SS Lieutenant Colonel Adolf Eichmann (Referat IV B4); SS Colonel Eberhard Schöngarth (commander of the RSHA field office for the Government General in Krakow, Poland); SS Major Rudolf Lange (commander of RSHA Einsatzkommando 2); and SS Major General Otto Hofmann (chief of SS Race and Settlement Main Office).For the State:
Roland Freisler (Ministry of Justice); Friedrich Wilhelm Kritzinger (Reich Cabinet); Alfred Meyer (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories-German-occupied USSR); Georg Leibrandt (Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories); Martin Luther (Foreign Office); Wilhelm Stuckart (Ministry of the Interior); Erich Neumann (Office of Plenipotentiary for the Four-Year Plan), Josef Bühler (Office of the Government of the Governor General-German-occupied Poland); Gerhard Klopfer (Nazi Party Chancellery).[284]
- ^ Altreich refers to territories that were part of Nazi Germany before 1938.
- ^ Wannsee-Protokoll: "Diese Aktionen sind jedoch lediglich als Ausweichmöglichkeiten anzusprechen, doch werden hier bereits jene praktischen Erfahrungen gesammelt, die im Hinblick auf die kommende Endlösung der Judenfrage von wichtiger Bedeutung sind."[291]
Translation, Avalon Project: "These actions are, however, only to be considered provisional, but practical experience is already being collected which is of the greatest importance in relation to the future final solution of the Jewish question."[288]
- ^ Franciszek Piper used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3 million deported to Auschwitz, 1,082,000 died there between 1940 and 1945, a figure (rounded up to 1.1 million) that he regarded as a minimum.[293]
- ^ Auschwitz I contained crematorium I, which stopped operating in July 1943.[294] Auschwitz II contained crematoria II–V.[295]
- ^ Auschwitz I also had a gas chamber; gassing there, of non-Jewish Poles and Soviet POWs, began in August 1941.
- ^ French Jews were active in the French Resistance.[362] Zionist Jews formed the Armee Juive (Jewish Army), which participated in armed resistance under a Zionist flag, smuggled Jews out of the country,[363] and participated in the liberation of Paris and other cities.[364] As many as 1.5 million Jewish soldiers fought in the Allied armies, including 500,000 in the Red Army, 550,000 in the U.S. Army, 100,000 in the Polish army, and 30,000 in the British army. About 200,000 Jewish soldiers serving in the Red Army died in the war, either in combat or after capture.[365] The Jewish Brigade, a unit of 5,000 Jewish volunteers from the British Mandate of Palestine, fought in the British Army.[366]
- ^ Michael Fleming (2014): "As is evidenced by the reports that reached Warsaw, the resistance movement in the camp was well aware of what was happening to the Jews, and in a report dated 1 July 1942 advised that from June 1941 Soviet prisoners of war were taken straight from trains to the gas chambers. This report also noted that through 1942 around 30,000 Jewish men and 15,000 Jewish women and children had arrived at Oświęcim, most of whom—including all the children—were gassed immediately. The exact date that this information was received in Warsaw is not known, but it was included as an attachment to an internal Home Army report ... on 28 September 1942 and the Underground leadership in Warsaw incorporated this information into the situation report for the period from 26 August to 10 October 1942. [This document and 23 other reports] ... did not reach London until late winter 1943."[373]
- ^ a b c Yad Vashem: "There is no precise figure for the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust. The figure commonly used is the six million quoted by Adolf Eichmann, a senior SS official. All the serious research confirms that the number of victims was between five and six million. Early calculations range from 5.1 million (Professor Raul Hilberg) to 5.95 million (Jacob Leschinsky). More recent research, by Professor Yisrael Gutman and Dr. Robert Rozett in the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, estimates the Jewish losses at 5.59–5.86 million, and a study headed by Dr. Wolfgang Benz presents a range from 5.29 million to 6.2 million."The main sources for these statistics are comparisons of prewar censuses with postwar censuses and population estimates. Nazi documentation containing partial data on various deportations and murders is also used. We estimate that Yad Vashem currently has somewhat more than 4.2 million names of victims that are accessible."[424]
- ^ Robert Ley committed suicide in prison and Gustav Krupp was judged unfit for trial.[467]
- ^ The debate was preceded by the 40th anniversary in May 1985 of the end of World War II, and by President Ronald Reagan's visit that month to a German military cemetery at the suggestion of Chancellor Helmut Kohl, leading to the so-called Bitburg controversy.[480]
- ^ Nolte had delivered a similar lecture to the Carl-Friedrich-Siemens-Stiftung in Munich, published in abridged form as "Die negative Lebendigkeiet des Dritten Reiches. Eine Frage aus dem Blickwinkel des Jahres 1980" in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung on 24 July 1980.[482]
The speech that could not be delivered referred to a lecture Nolte had planned to give to the Römerberg-Gesprächen (Römerberg Colloquium) in Frankfurt; he said his invitation had been withdrawn, which the organisers disputed.[483] At that point, his lecture had the title "The Past That Will Not Pass: To Debate or to Draw the Line?".[484]
- ^ "War nicht der 'Archipel Gulag' ursprünglicher als 'Auschwitz'? War nicht der 'Klassenmord' der Bolschewiki das logische und faktische Prius des 'Rassenmords' der Nationalsozialisten? Sind Hitlers geheimste Handlungen nicht gerade auch dadurch zu erklären, daß er den 'Rattenkäfig' nicht vergessen hatte? Rührte Auschwitz vielleicht in seinen Ursprüngen aus einer Vergangenheit her, die nicht vergehen wollte?"[481]
- ^ Deborah Lipstadt argued in 1994 that Nolte's "invalid historical comparisons" were a form of Holocaust denial "designed to help Germans embrace their past by telling them that their country's actions were no different than those of countless others ..."[486]
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Knowlton & Cates 1993, pp. 18–23; partly reproduced in "The Past That Will Not Pass" (translation), German History in Documents and Images.
- ^ Knowlton & Cates 1993, p. 15.
- ^ Evans 1987, p. 764, note 10.
- ^ Piper 1993, p. 23.
- ^ Piper 1993, p. 274.
- ^ Lipstadt 1994, p. 213.
- ^ Stone 2010, pp. 211–212.
- ^ Evans 2015, p. 385.
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- Yahil, Leni (1990). The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504523-9.
- Zimmerman, Joshua D. (2015). The Polish Underground and the Jews, 1939–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1426-8.
- Zuccotti, Susan (1993). The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-03034-3.
- Zweig, Ronald (2001). "Reparations, German". In Laqueur, Walter; Baumel, Judith Tydor (eds.). The Holocaust Encyclopedia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 530–532. ISBN 0-300-08432-3.
External links
- Global Directory of Holocaust Museums.
- H-Holocaust, H-Net discussion list for librarians, scholars and advanced students.
- "Auschwitz: Drone video of Nazi concentration camp". BBC News, 27 January 2015.
- "Human laboratory animals". Life magazine, 22(8), 24 February 1947, pp. 81–84.
- Bönisch, Georg; et al. (20 May 2009). "The Dark Continent: Hitler's European Holocaust Helpers". Der Spiegel. Archived from the original on 3 January 2015.
- Cesarani, David (25 September 2009). "An insult to Kiev's massacred Jews". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019.
- Frankel, Max (14 November 2001). "150th Anniversary: 1851–2001; Turning Away From the Holocaust". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017.
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